User:Wsyed1

Plant Microbiomes Interaction

Plant Microbiome is looking into the association between microbes and plants. The interaction between microbes and plants can be studied by looking at one particular area called the rhizosphere. The rhizosphere is a zone of soil near the roots. Microbes can also be found living on the endosphere and the phyllosphere. The study of these interactions are commonly used for nutrient availability, pathogen resistance, growth promotion and stress reduction (2). Some legume crop interactions between plants and the microbes are generally well understood (3). One of the problems involved in determining the plant microbiomes is the phenomenon of the great plate count anomaly, implying that growing cultures on plates may inhibit growth of all microbes living in the environment (8). Isolating cultures on plates may not mean that this strains are of ecological significance (14). Plant microbiome studies will elucidate the function of various microbes’ when in planta (9) and define the microbial diversity that is found in the plant (10). The makeup of the microbial diversity is defined taking in account the richness and the abundance of species. Richness determines how many species are present in a given sample. It is quite common to use a sampling curve to analyze the data. Abundance is the concept of how many of a particular species is present in the soil sample. The microbiomes can be changed due to several environmental factors, either abiotic or biotic (9). A deeper understanding of the plant microbiomes is to look at the three major sections of the plant: the rhizosphere, endosphere and phyllosphere (10). Contribution to the metabolism of the plant can be studied from microorganisms living in the rhizosphere (11). Interactions between the plant’s inner tissue (compartments) and microbes is usually studied on the endosphere (12). Lastly, the phyllosphere is a compartment where microorganism such as Methylotrophs are abundant (13).

Rhizosphere Environment

The rhizosphere is located near the roots of the plants. An important part of the rhizosphere is the roots exudates, these roots exudates usually contain several compounds such as amino acids, growth factors, and hormones (4). And from recent research different types of plants produce different compounds as roots exudate (5). The rhizosphere promotes the growth of rhizobacteria. A predominant group from this community includes nitrogen-fixing bacteria, essential for plants to obtain nitrogen (6). Root exudates include compounds that attract microorganisms such as flavonoids (15). Carbon sources derived from photosynthetic activity are also released through exudates and can attract microbes through metabolic complementation (9). Lastly, a major benefit of the microbes that live in the rhizosphere is their ability to defend against a pathogen that could harm to the plant (9). The rhizosphere contains microbes that could limit the ability of the pathogen to cause harm, coined the term 'suppressive rhizosphere' (9). One particular root pathogen (Rhizoctonia) in sugar beet was shown to protect against plant diseases(17).      

Phyllosphere Environment

The phyllosphere is the above ground portion of the plant, and includes the surface of the plant that can be seen, such as the leaves and stems. The phyllosphere has many more microbes than the rhizosphere (25). Phyllosphere served many important functions from sequestering carbon (13) to the protection of plant from pathogens (19). Abiotic factors contribute to differences of the microbial community composition and metabolic functions present on the phyllosphere. These factors include changes on temperature, humidity, and pH (18). The community that is found on the phyllosphere is composed of several organisms like bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and algae (20). The phyllosphere is an environment where nutrients are scarce (21). Metagenomics studies have shown that species present on the phyllosphere produce a protein called rhodopsin and it is thought to contribute to harvest light (21).

Endosphere Environment

The endosphere is an area located inside of the plant that contains microbes (9). Microbes living in this compartment are typically not considered to be pathogenic but under certain environmental conditions they can turn into pathogenic microbes that can cause disease (9). Scientists right now are trying to understand how bacteria live inside of the plant. One hypothesis is that bacteria enter through a junction found in the roots (9), and while it is not definitive, researchers have found evidence to support this idea. Another way the bacteria can get into the plant is through the root’s tip (9).

References

1.       Bernedsen, R. L., Pieterse, C. M. J., & Bakker, A. H. M. (2012). The rhizosphere microbiome and plant health. Trends in Plant Science, 17, 478–486.

2. Advances in Botanical Research: The Plant Microbiome. Elsevier Science; 2014.

3.Singh BK, Bardgett RD, Smith P, Reay DS: Microorganisms and climate change: terrestrial feedbacks and mitigation options. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2010, 8: 779-790.

4. Bertin C, Yang XH, Weston LA: The role of root exudates and allelochemicals in the rhizosphere. Plant Soil. 2003, 256: 67-83.

5. Micallef SA, Shiaris MP, Colon-Carmona A: Influence of Arabidopsis thaliana accessions on rhizobacterial communities and natural variation in root exudates. J Exp Bot. 2009, 60: 1729-1742.

6.Turner TR, James EK, Poole PS. The plant microbiome. Genome biology. 2013;14(6):209.

7. Lindow SE, Brandl MT: Microbiology of the phyllosphere. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2003, 69: 1875-1883.

8. Amann, R.I.; Ludwing, W.; Schleifer, K.H. 1995. Phylogenetic identification and in situ detection of individual microbial cells without cultivation. Microbiology Reviews 59: 143-169.  

9.Turner TR, James EK, Poole PS. The plant microbiome. Genome biology. 2013;14(6):209.

10. Hardoim, P.; Overbeek, L. van; Elsas, J. van. 2008. Properties of bacterial endophytes and their proposed role in plant growth. Trends in Microbiology 16: 463-471.

11. Bulgarelli, D.; Spaepen, S.S.; Themaat, E.V.L.; Shulze-Lefert, P. 2013. Structure and functions of the bacterial microbiota of plants. Annual Reviews in Plant Biology 64: 807-838.  

12. Hallmann, J.; Quadt-Hallmann, A.; Mahaffee, W.F.; Kloepper, J.W. 1997. Bacterial endophytes in agricultural crops. Canadian Journal of Microbiology 43: 895-914.

13. Lambais, M.R.; Crowley, D.E.; Cury, J.C.; Bull, R.C.; Rodrigues, R.R. 2006. Bacterial diversity in tree canopies of the Atlantic forest. Science 312: 1917-1917. 

14. Microbial Ecology by Larry L. Barton and Diana E. Northrup (2011)

15. Nguyen, C. 2003. Rhizodeposition of organic C by plants: mechanisms and controls. Agronomie 23: 375-396.

16. Mendes, R.; Garbeva, P.; Raaijmakers, J.M. 2013. The rhizosphere microbiome: significance of plant beneficial, plant pathogenic, and human pathogenic microorganisms. FEMS Microbiology Reviews 37: 634-663.

17. Cook, R.J.; Thomashow, L.S.; Weller, D.M.; Fujimoto, D.; Mazzola, M.; Bangera, G.; Kim, D.S. 1995. Molecular mechanisms of defense by rhizobacteria against root disease. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the USA 92: 4197-4201.

18. Lindow SE: Role of immigration and other processes in determining epiphytic bacterial populations-implications for disease management. Aerial Plant Surface Microbiology. 1996, New York: Plenum, 155-168.

19. Jones, K. 1970. Nitrogen fixation in phyllosphere of Douglas Fir Pseudotsuga-Douglasii. Annals of Botany 34: 239-244.

20. Lindow, S.E.; Brandl, M.T. 2003. Microbiology of the phyllophere. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 69: 1875-1883.

21. Andrews, J.H.; Harris, R.F. 2000. The ecology and biogeography of microorganisms on plant surfaces. Annual Reviews of Phytopathology 38: 145-180.  

22. Atamna-Ismaeel N, Finkel OM, Glaser F, Sharon I, Schneider R, Post AF, Spudich JL, von Mering C, Vorholt JA, Iluz D, Béjà O, Belkin S: Microbial rhodopsins on leaf surfaces of terrestrial plants. Environ Microbiol. 2012, 14: 140-146.

23.Jackson, C. R., Tyler, H. L., & Millar, J. J. (2013). Determination of Microbial Extracellular Enzyme Activity in Waters, Soils, and Sediments using High Throughput Microplate Assays. Journal of Visualized Experiments : JoVE, (80), 50399. Advance online publication. http://doi.org/10.3791/50399

24. Sugiyama A, Ueda Y, Zushi T, Takase H, Yazaki K (2014) Changes in the Bacterial Community of Soybean Rhizospheres during Growth in the Field. PLoS ONE 9(6): e100709. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0100709

25. Lindow S, Brandl M. Microbiology of the phyllosphere. APPLIED AND ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY. 2003;69(4):1875-83.

---