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Groupthink

Motivated reasoning

Citations

• Christensen, Julian; Moynihan, Donald P. (2024). "Motivated reasoning and policy information: politicians are more resistant to debiasing interventions than the general public". Behavioural Public Policy. 8 (1): 47–68. doi:10.1017/bpp.2020.50. ISSN 2398-063X. Retrieved 2024-05-30.
• "The Decline in Race Relations: The Perils of Groupthink and Motivated Reasoning — Heterodox Academy". Retrieved 2024-05-30.
• Charles, Guy-Uriel E. "Motivated Reasoning, Post-Truth, and Election Law". SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY LAW JOURNAL. 64.

Gender/identity

• Bates, Nancy; Chin, Marshall; Becker, Tara, eds. (2022). Measuring Sex, Gender Identity, and Sexual Orientation. Consensus Study Report. Washington, DC: National Academies Press: National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. doi:10.17226/26424. ISBN 978-0-309-27511-8. Retrieved 2024-05-05.

Chapter 1

In practice, sex and gender are often conflated under the assumption that they are mutually determined and do not differ from each other, despite a widespread understanding that sex refers to biological characteristics and gender refers to social and behavioral characteristics.

Sexual orientation is conceptually linked to sex and gender because individuals are classified on the basis of the relationship between their own sex or gender and that of their actual or preferred partners. This has sometimes led to the conflation of gender (non)conformity and sexual orientation, even though gender and sexual orientation are separate concepts.

Better measurement of sex, gender identity, and sexual orientation will also improve identification of sexual and gender minority populations and understanding of the challenges they face. Current estimates suggest that there were over 11 million lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people in the United States in 2020, comprising about 5.6 percent of the U.S. adult population.(p. 17)

Sex is a multidimensional construct based on a cluster of anatomical and physiological traits that include external genitalia, secondary sex characteristics, gonads, chromosomes, and hormones.

Gender is a multidimensional construct that links gender identity, which is a core element of a person’s individual identity; gender expression, which is how a person signals their gender to others through their behavior and appearance (such as hair style and clothing); and cultural expectations about social status, characteristics, and behavior that are associated with sex traits.(p. 20)

Chapter 2

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• Moore, Henrietta L. (1998). "Is Female to Male as Nature is to Culture?". Social Analysis: The International Journal of Social and Cultural Practice. 42 (3): 159–163. ISSN 0155-977X. JSTOR 23166586. Retrieved 2024-05-05.

• Ortner, Sherry B. (1972). "Is Female to Male as Nature Is to Culture?". Feminist Studies. 1 (2): 5–31. doi:10.2307/3177638. ISSN 0046-3663. JSTOR 3177638. Retrieved 2024-05-05.*Pertierra, Iñaki Xavier Larrauri (2020). "The Nature/Culture Divide". InCircolo (10).

• "LGBTQI+". United Nations. Retrieved 2024-05-05.

Swimming

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Swimming pools

• Tew, Joseph Garner (1937). The Sanitary Aspects of Swimming Pools of the Chicago Public Schools (Thesis). Chicago, Illinois: The University of Chicago. Retrieved 2024-04-03.

p. 7 - Table I - Chicago Public Schools swimming pools built between 1911 and 1935: two colleges, 32 high schools, 4 elementary. The majority were 24 by 60 feet, 55,000 gallons. An Olympic-size swimming pool is 50 meters (164.0 ft) in length.

This building program was the result of the popularity of swimming and the public policy focused upon reducing death by drowning. However, the spread of disease by swimmers became a problem which could not be addressed by filtration or chemical water treatment alone.

p. 10 - A source of contamination was the swimmers, so rules were established that everyone take a thorough soap shower nude, and be inspected by attendants, before entering the pool. (However, this paper does not mention swimmers remaining nude while in the pool, which was the case for male students.)

Swimsuits as a source of contamination was also noted.

p. 36 - It was noted that the higher incidence of e. coli in pools used by black children was attributed to the difficulty of staff confirming by visual inspection the thoroughness of showering before entering the pool.

p. 38 - There was no locker room at Tilden high school, so swimmers changed on the bleachers.

p. 45 - Suits for girls is again discussed with no mention of boys wearing nothing, although a higher bacterial count was measured after girls use of the pool. Although girls were also required to take a shower before, enforcement was lax.

Religion

Rather than religion being the source of sexual conservatism, causation may be in the other direction. Individuals who are sexually conservative may seek out religions that support their preferences.

Art

• Smith, Ralph A. (1964). "Art Education/Criticism: A Reply to David Manzella's, Educationists and the Evisceration of the Visual Arts". Art Education. 17 (2): 4–8. doi:10.2307/3190389. ISSN 0004-3125. JSTOR 3190389. Retrieved 2024-05-05.

Images

• Ancient Egypt
• 
  Female Musicians
• 
  Three musicians
• 
  Akmanthor
• 
  Ihy
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  Burial Chamber
• 
  Domesticated Animals
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  Tomb of Nakht

• Middle Ages
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  Mixed gender bathing c. 1470

• Modern
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  Bather's Morning (1917) by Kuzma Petrov-Vodkin
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  German children in an air raid shelter under a sunlamp, 1940
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  Boy Scout Commemorative Tribute (1963) by Donald De Lue
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  Women asserting topfreedom in NYC
• Children playing in a pool, East Germany (1958)
  Children playing in a pool, East Germany (1958)
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  City children - bathing nude in East River, NYC

Intersubjectivity

Conceptions of intersubjectivity address the shared nature of human experience, that understanding of the world is not solely shaped by individual perspectives but the interactions and shared meanings create with others.

Language, symbols, and cultural practices serve as mediums through which individuals convey and interpret meaning collectively. This shared semantic space contributes to the development of a common understanding of the world. The meanings attributed to events, objects, and experiences are shaped by cultural norms, shared narratives, and social context.

• In philosophy: a metaphysical orientation that contrasts with subjectivity and objectivity, and is associated with phenomenology (Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger).
• In psychology: addresses how mutual understanding and shared meaning-making between individuals challenges the traditional notion of subjectivity and autonomy, which often focuses on individual consciousness and perception .Intersubjectivity involves the capacity for empathy and recognition of others' perspectives. By acknowledging and understanding the subjective experiences of others, individuals can create a more harmonious and interconnected social world. Empathy fosters a sense of shared humanity and promotes meaningful connections. Empathy is built upon early childhood development: theory of mind and attachment.
• In social psychology and sociology: is consistant with contemporary concepts of the social construction of reality.

Critics argue that the concept can be overly abstract and difficult to operationalize in empirical research.