User:WilyMango/flood-assembly

University of Edinburgh Global Health Challenges Team 3

• CelesteBI
• Melodilan
• Mitchyy12
• Sof-Wiki-GHC2024-25
• WilyMango
• Yihan He

This is where we are assembling a draft of our post for the 2016-2017 Zimbabwe Floods.

Overview

After an almost two-year long severe drought induced by El Niño (2014–2016 El Niño event), causing food and water shortages all over Zimbabwe, the country was hit by heavy rains causing severe flooding from December 2016 to March 2017.

A rainy season started in October 2016 resulting in floods from December 2016 onwards. This was exacerbated by Cyclone Dineo (Category 1 cyclone), which originated from the Mozambique Channel. Dineo was downgraded to a tropical depression when hitting land on February 15th, reaching Zimbabwe on February 16th, 2017, with wind speeds between 165 and 225 km/h (Category 3 hurricane). It brought 72 mm of rain in 24 hours, causing the Gwayi River to overflow, flooding nearby villages and destroying homesteads and public infrastructure.

Worst affected were 37 districts within 10 Provinces, of which the Matabeleland (North, West, South and Central), Midlands, Masvingo, Mashonaland West, Manicaland and Metropolitan Provinces were hit the hardest. The government estimated that overall the floods killed up to 251 and injured at least 128 people. Private and public infrastructure was damaged or destroyed, including 5 bridges, more than 140 dams, almost 400 schools, and nearly 2,600 livelihoods, leaving many people marooned and/or homeless. Nearly 2,000 people were internally displaced in the worst affected Tsholotsho district (Matabeleland North Province) of which over 850 (54% children) were sheltering in a temporary camp at Sipepa Rural Clinic. Further, water supply infrastructure was damaged and therefore water quality, sanitation, and hygiene services (WASH) were heavily compromised, leaving up to 100,000 people without safe drinking water and increasing the risk of disease outbreaks like typhoid, cholera, malaria, and measles.

The Zimbabwean Government declared the floods a national emergency at the beginning of March 2017 and appealed to the private sector, development partners, NGOs, and foreign governments for international assistance. The total funding needed for immediate emergency assistance as well as long-term rebuilding of infrastructure was estimated at USD 198 million. The Government of Zimbabwe allocated an immediate USD 1 million, and allocated USD 35 million more, for the emergency. International donors, including America through USAID, China, the European Union, and Japan donated millions in emergency response funds for the response in addition to pre-existing official development assistance commitments that supported recovery. NGOs, including but not limited to the Red Cross provided supplies and humanitarian assistance, supplemented by community assistance.

Location and Population Affected

Geographical impact

45 districts experienced severe flooding, prompting the Government of Zimbabwe to declare a national disaster. The low-lying regions of the country bore the brunt of the impact, especially in Tsholotsho District in Matabeleland North, which was reported as one of the worst affected districts. Inadequate drainage and flat terrain contributed to flooding, as did proximity to the Gwayi River, adding vulnerability to flash floods. Extensive damage also affected regions in southern and western Zimbabwe, including Bulawayo and areas near the Mozambique border.

Socioeconomic impact

Number of people affected (January - April 2017)

• A total of over 160,000 individuals be affected
• 251 fatalities
• 1,985 homeless people
• 900 displaced people

Human Casualties & Displacement

251 people died and 128 people were injured due to various impacts of the floods. Additionally, almost 2,000 people became homeless, with an evacuation camp in Tsholostho in Matabeleland North filled with 900 displaced people.

Significant losses in livestock, crops, villages, and food supplies heavily impacted the rural population. With agriculture forming a primary livelihood, these losses compounded the population's vulnerability.

Countless people faced food insecurity due to destroying farmland and food storage facilities. Displaced individuals were temporarily housed in makeshift camps, where organisations like the Zimbabwe Red Cross and international NGOs provided food, clean water, and medical care to treat pre-existing and flood-caused diseases.

The most affected population are of school-going age (5-18 years), however there is a risk that the elderly may suffer neglect in terms of access to services. People living with disabilities are at risk of not having health and hygiene enabling facilities. Women are susceptible to abuse (physical and emotional). The burden of care heavily lies with the women, in general, a few men are registered in the camp.

The affected population was served by Sipepa Rural Clinic. The affected population included vulnerable groups, specifically 159 children under age 5, 57 elderly (including 8 disabled), 86 chronically ill children, and 39 children on HIV antiretroviral therapy.

Agriculture

There is high food insecurity due to the displacement and loss of livelihoods and food stocks. Approximately 60% of the crops sown during the flood in January 2017 suffered waterlogging. Crop yields that were planted during the period (October to December 2016) although will be lower due to leaching, likely to be nominal harvesting of the early crop that was planted during the period (October to December 2016).causing maize grain to be inaccessible in local markets. The area experienced high levels of food insecurity, along with significant losses of livelihoods and food stocks. No signs of self-sustained agricultural or livelihood activities were evident in the flood area and affected households relied extensively on food assistance and donations.

Number of Housing, Infrastructure & Education affected (January - April 2017)

• 2579 homesteads damaged
• 166,216 children's education disrupted in 388 schools
• 5 health institutions damaged in Tsholotsho disrict
• 72 dams breached
• 100,000 people in need of safe drinking water

Housing, Infrastructure & Education

Nearly 2,600 houses were destroyed, leaving thousands of people homeless.

Breaches of 140 communities and privately owned dams caused extensive downstream infrastructure damage, especially in Matabeleland (South and North) and Midlands Provinces. Roads were damaged and bridges collapsed, leaving almost all districts inaccessible.

Accessing to clean water, hygiene, and sanitation, have been severely impacted by the recent flood, particularly within overcrowded internally displaced persons (IDP) camps, heightening the risk of waterborne and vector-borne diseases, including cholera, typhoid, diarrhea, and malaria. Over 100,000 individuals are currently without access to safe drinking water due to damage sustained by water infrastructure. Boreholes and latrines, including those at schools and healthcare facilities, have been submerged and rendered unusable.

The Zimbabwe Ministry of Health reported 1,934 suspected and 59 confirmed typhoid, leading to 5 deaths. Eight flood-affected districts experienced malaria outbreaks.

287 primary and 101 secondary schools was identified has been damaged by floods. 166,216 children had their education disrupted, with only a limited number integrated in already overcrowded schools nearby. Delayed assistance led to poor academic performance and school dropouts. For instance, pupils from Mathuphula and Mahlaba primary schools were integrated at Sipepa Primary School. With an enrolment of 342 pupils, the school has six classrooms and needed furniture, teaching and learning materials, and staff accommodations. Overcrowding in surrounding schools was caused by the lack of education resources.

History and Contributing Factors

Meteorological Factors

• El Niño and La Niña Cycles: The 2016-2017 floods were mostly attributed to the La Niña phenomenon which resulted in a combination of heavy rainfalls and tropical cyclonic activity. It followed the 2015–2016 El Niño phenomenon which resulted in reduced rainfall and drought. This transition from severe drought conditions to excessive wet conditions led to rapidly saturated grounds.

• Tropical Cyclones: In February 2017, the tropical cyclone Dineo which originated from the Mozambique Channel in the Indian Ocean, hit the southeastern cost of Mozambique on the 15^th of February with winds exceeding 100km/hr. Originally a category 3 tropical cyclone according to MTOTEC, it downgraded to a tropical depression as soon as it made landfall in Mozambique and was reclassified as Ex-Dineo. It continued its trajectory westwards and penetrated inland reaching Zimbabwe on the 16^th of February and exacerbated the weather conditions as it brought heavy rains and strong winds with more than 100mm of rain in 24 hours.

Geographical Factors

• Topography: The center part of Zimbabwe consists of a high broad plateau called the Highveld situated approximately 1200m above sea level and forming a watershed with lower regions on either side of it sloping into the Zambezi River basin to the north, the Limpopo River basin to the south, and the Save River basin to the southeast which make low-lying regions more prone to flooding.
• Soil: About 70% of the soil consists of granite-derived sandy soils which are susceptible to degradations such as leaching and erosion under heavy rains.
• Rivers and Dam Systems: Because of the La Niña phenomenon, most rivers and their tributaries had already received above-average rainfall, and the grounds were already saturated leading to surface runoff. The tropical cyclone Dineo made the situation worse resulting in 85% of the country’s dams that could not sustain the excessive amount of extra water and spilled over exacerbating the flooding situation.

Human and Infrastructural Factors

• Infrastructure: Infrastructures such as dams, roads, bridges, or homesteads were prone to damage during heavy rains, because they were old or outdated, or built with non-durable or poor-quality construction materials, so they lacked the robustness to withstand such high volumes of water.
• Population Distribution: More than 70% of the population relies on agriculture as their primary source of income. They reside in low-lying rural regions near rivers which are highly vulnerable to flooding.
• Deforestation and Soil Degradation: Deforestation activities and soil degradation from farming, have made the country susceptible to floods by weakening the natural ability of trees to absorb water and reducing the soil’s water retention capacity.

Disaster Preparation and Risk Management Strategies

• Early Warning Systems: Early warning systems and information dissemination were insufficient because it failed to reach the most vulnerable population in remote rural areas which often do not have access to newspapers, television, radio, or telephones.
• Community Preparedness: Many rural communities lacked knowledge on flood risks, or on how to be prepared and react in case a flooding occurred, and on evacuation protocols making them vulnerable. This was mainly due to lack of education and lack of governmental campaigns.
• Disaster Response: The Government was not prepared and poorly equipped to properly respond to such a large-scale disaster due to its lack of funding, workforces, resources, and its inability to implement climate change strategies.
• Aid Dependence: Due to its financial difficulties and limited resources to manage such a catastrophe, Zimbabwe needed to rely on international and humanitarian help.   

Short- and Long-term Health Impacts

In 2016-2017, the floods in Zimbabwe produced a number of short- and long-term health consequences on the physical and mental wellbeing of the population affected by the flood. The general shortage of health care access in Zimbabwe added to the poor infrastructure and hence pre-existing vulnerabilities, further magnified the health consequences.

Short-term Health Consequences

Waterborne Diseases:

The southern part of the country was particularly badly hit due to heavy rains from January to March 2017 that caused acute flooding in 37 districts across the country. The destruction of the water supply infrastructure during the flooding allowed pathogens to contaminate the sources of water, increasing the burden of diseases like cholera, dysentery, typhoid, and hepatitis A, which are acquired through contaminated water. Diarrheal diseases as a part of waterborne diseases due to flood water also emerged. About 100,000 of the populace in these areas are exposed to safe drinking water.

Vector-borne diseases:

Above-average rainfall from the tropical depression ''Ex-Dieneo'' further contributed to the flooding during this season. The water was allowed to stagnate, thereby creating a good breeding environment for mosquitoes and increasing cases of malaria and other mosquito-borne diseases.

Injuries and trauma:

Due directly to the floods, flash floods, and landslides caused physical trauma in people in the form of fractures, lacerations, and other traumas. The floods resulted in about 251 deaths and about 128 injuries.

Over 140 community and privately owned dams burst their banks during the floods, causing infrastructure damage downstream; the flood monitoring equipment in Matabeleland and Central provinces was severely damaged, which is likely to impair the effectiveness of flood early warnings. House destruction, along with road and infrastructure destruction, has rendered parts of the area inaccessible to the population has impeded healthcare access, and complicated the treatment of injuries and other pressing health problems.

Displacement and shelter issues:

About 160,000 people were affected by the floods from January to March 2017 led to the displacement of almost 2,000 people. Of these displaced, 859 moved to a camp in Tsholosho, Matabeleland North, while approximately 190 families were accommodated in temporary camps that had been set up by the Sipepa Clinic in Tsholosho District. Poor sanitary conditions in the overcrowding shelters made them more vulnerable to diseases of the respiratory system and skin diseases.

54% or 460 of the population affected were children. The flood impact led to a lack of quality and safe learning areas for the local children; there was a total number of 388 schools that were destroyed by the flood, thus increasing the stress on children's development.

Abuse and violence:

The most affected are children and females. In setting up camps for those affected by flooding, village-style tents are set up near each other, thus creating a low level of security and a high risk of abuse of females and children. Also, because of the poor lighting system in the camps, this increases the likelihood that children and females will fall victim to sexual abuse. Therefore, there is a need for monitoring of the movement of children within the camps, since there was the presence of criminal people inside and outside the camps.

Long-term health Consequences

Chronic diseases and malnutrition:

Food security is usually the slightest after floods since the crops get destroyed, livestock dies, and markets are disrupted. The same puts persons at risk for nutrition problems. The most at-risk populations are usually school children aged 5-18 years old who suffer from stunted growth. Simultaneously, older persons tend to become victims of negligence regarding service provision for food, health, and sanitation.

Long-term economic consequences such as decreased access to routine health services and healthy diets may result in chronic diseases including hypertension, diabetes, and other non-communicable diseases.

Psychosocial problems and protracted mental health conditions:

While some of the internally displaced persons heal physically with time, mental health disorders arise and persist for years. Continued economic stressors including the loss of livelihoods and poor shelter are ongoing drivers of people's mental health.

Successive tragedies and family members' loss can lead to long-term psychological distress and hurt the quality of life of family members.

Local and International Response

The consequences faced by Zimbabwe through the 2016/2017 floods show that there were minimal mitigation and preparedness initiatives put in place for disasters, as is articulated by the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction which Zimbabwe is a party. Local and international organisations responded to aid recovery for people affected by the disaster.

Local Authorities Response

The Government of Zimbabwe took steps to assess damages and coordinate relief mechanisms. This included establishing a National Disaster Management Committee to oversee the disaster response and recovery. The Government of Zimbabwe declared a state of national disaster on March 3, 2017, launching a Domestic and International Flood Appeal for humanitarian assistance estimating that USD$189 million was needed for emergency and recovery. This is in agreement with the Sphere project which emphasizes the right to life and the need to alleviate human suffering through humanitarian assistance.

The Zimbabwe Red Cross Society played a role through conducting rapid assessments and distributing relief supplies. They received funding from the International Federation of Redcross and Red Crescent Societies to support providing medical assistance, food and shelter to affected communities. Local communities were involved in flood response and recovery. The flood victims who had been exposed to secondary education improved their housing structures after the flood disasters, however they faced challenges related to lack of resources and inadequate infrastructure.

International Response

Various international organisations offered humanitarian assistance in response to the 2016/17 Zimbabwean floods. These included the United Nations (UN), Government of Japan, NGOs like World Vision International, The World Food Program. The Central Emergency Response Fund (CERF) allocated resources to support humanitarian assistance, which played a role in addressing immediate needs and filling in response gaps.

Aid agencies provided assistance in form of camp coordination, health, education, nutrition, protection, shelter. Furthermore, The UN Resident Coordinator coordinated relief efforts through a multi-stakeholder consultative forum which composed of UN, NGOs, private sector and other donor communities. The World Food Program redirected food contributions from the drought response to the flood affected communities. Some of the challenges of delivering aid included infrastructure damages. The destruction of roads and bridges made it difficult to deliver aid in rural areas. Recovery was difficult to achieve due to vulnerabilities in areas like Sipepa and Jimila wards.

Lessons Learned

The Government of Zimbabwe, UN agencies, NGOs, international experts, and academics studied the flooding event, disaster response, and recovery, prompting recommendations to enhance preparedness and the effectiveness of future actions.

Strengthen Monitoring and Early Warning Systems

Zimbabwe’s Meteorological Service Department operates an emergency warning system that broadcasts weather forecasts and emergency messages by mobile phone, radio, and newspaper. However, not all areas of the country are monitored by weather stations, warning messages are not always timely and in a language spoken by audiences, nor do they provide actionable instructions to follow. Post-disaster analyses recommended strengthened early warning systems that communicate clear emergency instructions promptly, including by SMS at no charge to receivers, that are tailored to each hazard zone and audience in an appropriate language.

Decentralize Authority and Supplies

Disaster Risk Management (DRM) authority is centralized within the national Department of Civil Production (DCP), an agency which devotes limited resources to provincial and district levels. Post-disaster assessments recommended building capacity for disaster response within communities to enhance preparedness and recovery. Community volunteers understand local contexts and can respond quickly to help their communities recover. Reallocating emergency supply stocks, including shelters, clothing, WASH materials, medicines, and construction supplies to hazard zones where they are most likely to be needed ahead of disasters will improve the speed and effectiveness of response.

Consider Women, Children, and Vulnerable Populations

Most people displaced by the floods were women and children. Post-disaster assessments found that women, children, and other vulnerable populations like the elderly and disabled were disproportionately burdened by the disaster, yet their needs were not adequately considered by responders.

Access to safe water and sanitation has a significant impact on women and girls, who experience difficulty with menstrual hygiene management, leading to the increased risk of disease and physical violence. Restricted water access is a double burden for women in Zimbabwe, who are culturally responsible for walking longer distances to collect and carry it to their families from safe sources. Temporary shelter accommodations are crowded, poorly lit, and lack privacy, increasing the risk of gender-based violence and sexual assault of women and children.

Prioritization of gender considerations is recommended in all aspects of disaster planning and response. These include improved privacy for women and children, more lighting and police presence in shelter camps, including sanitary kits for women in emergency supplies, identification and protection of unaccompanied minors, and prioritizing nutrition and humanitarian aid provided to women, children, and other vulnerable populations.

Increase Available Budgets and Resources

Zimbabwe's national budget does not allocate funds for disaster resource management, therefore the DCP must request funding annually from the treasury and on an ad-hoc basis through contingency accounts as disasters occur. This slow and bureaucratic process results in insufficient and delayed funding, which focuses entirely on disaster response rather than preparation and risk management.

DCP received an annual budget of US$286,000 in 2017, (.004% of the national budget). The 2011 Disaster Risk Management Act bill, designed to overhaul the nation's disaster risk management to be better in-line with the Sendai Framework and provide a minimum of 1% of the national budget for DRM, has yet to be signed into law.

Recognizing that the government was in a financially stressed position with poor liquidity, multiple analyses concluded that additional funding is necessary for disaster preparedness and response activities. Reports recommend that budgets consider the long-term needs for recovery and possible relocation of affected populations, not limited to the immediate disaster response. Distribution of funds to local levels further support community disaster response capacity building and engagement in preparation and post-disaster recovery. Approval and enforcement of the Disaster Risk Management Act bill is recommended by the reports as a positive step towards providing financial stability and structural reforms that will improve access to resources for disaster risk management.

Integrate Disaster Risk Management with Development

Rain from Cyclone Dineo caused 140 private and communal dams to breach, exacerbating flooding conditions as overflowing water inundated downstream communities. This negative impact of human development on the disaster's effects demonstrates how integrating disaster resource management with development is critical for building resilience, reducing vulnerabilities, and fostering sustainable growth. Pre- and post-disaster analyses of Zimbabwe's disaster readiness reveal that disaster risk management techniques are not known in government ministries outside of civil protection, including those responsible for infrastructure and economic development. They recommend involving those involved in development policymaking and planning, such as regional economists, receive training on disaster resource management, including indigenous knowledge systems used by local communities, as a part of long-term development strategy.