User:Walrasiad/Chronology

Preliminaries

• before 1147— Semi-legendary voyage of the eight Maghurin (Wanderers) of Lisbon, as reported by al-Idrisi (set sometime before the siege of Lisbon in 1147). Eight Muslims of Lisbon set out in a ship in search of the southern limits of the ocean sea, and supposedly come across several legendary islands offshore.

• 1275 - Ascension of King Denis of Portugal, who will vigorously encourage the expansion of Portuguese commerce and the establishment of Portuguese merchants abroad.

• 1277 - Genoa establishes a regular galley convoy to Bruges (Flanders), thereby permanently linking the Mediterranean and North Sea trade areas. Followed soon by Venetians, Pisans and others. Along the way, the Italian merchant convoys touch Iberian ports such as Sanlucar and Lisbon, which also begin to see the arrival of Italian immigrants, bringing their considerable commercial and nautical expertise to these hitherto sleepy cities.

• c.1290 - Appearance of the Carta Pisana, the earliest known portolan chart, first realistic nautical chart, gridded by compass rhumb line. Shows west African coast down to Azemmour.

• 1291 - Brothers Vandino and Ugolino Vivaldi of Genoa set out with a Majorcan crew on an expedition to circumvent Africa to find a sea passage to Asia. They disappear somewhere after Cape Non (southern Morocco).

• 1290 - Founding of the Studium Generale of Lisbon (forerunner to the University of Coimbra) by King Denis of Portugal.

• 1291 - Convention of Soria between Sancho IV of Castile and James II of Aragon, recognizing the Castilian and Aragonese 'zones' of reconquest. As it extends the Castilian right of conquest to Morocco and any Atlantic islands, this document will be a source of conflict with Portugal in the future.

• 1293 - King Denis of Portugal issues warrant for the establishment of a Portuguese overseas factory in Bruges, County of Flanders (feitoria de Flandres)

• 1294 - Commercial pact between Denis of Portugal and Edward I of England, reciprocally granting the other country's merchants safe-conducts and protection in their territories and establishing an arbitration council to resolve merchant disputes.

• 1295 - The Polo brothers (with young Marco Polo) return to Venice, after a quarter-century travelling through Asia.

• 1295 - Majorcan scholar Ramon Llull reports the use of what seems like a trigonometric table for navigation by Mediterranean sailors, first hint of the rule of marteloio.

32-point wind rose, from Jorge de Aguiar 1492 chart

• c.1300 - Mariner's compass, said to have been invented by Amalfitan sailor Flavio Gioja around this time (although compasses were used by Chinese, Arabs, Italians beforehand, Gioja's innovation was placing the magnetic needle on a compass rose card, facilitating nautical steering).

• 1308 - Renewal of the commercial pact between Denis of Portugal and new king Edward II of England, on a permanent basis.

• 1311 - Mapmaker Pietro Vesconte of Genoa produces first signed portolan chart. He will produce several more over the next couple of decades. Vesconte's 1313 nautical atlas is the first to depict the Atlantic Ocean coast.

Canary Islands

• c.1312 - Discovery of Canaries? Earliest proposed date for an obscure expedition by Genoese captain Lancelotto Malocello to search for the Vivaldi brothers. According to some sources, Malocello was shipwrecked on the Canary island of Lanzarote, and remained marooned for nearly two decades (for alternate story, see 1336). This is the first European trip to the Canary Islands since classical antiquity (then known as the 'Fortunate Isles')

• 1317 - Founding of Portuguese Navy Genoese captain Emanuele Pessagno (Manuel Pessanha) is hired by King Denis of Portugal as Admiral of Portugal and sets about creating the first permanent Portuguese navy.

• 1319 - King Denis of Portugal 're-founds' the defunct Knights Templar in Portugal as the Order of Christ

• c.1325 Portolan chart of Angelino Dalorto of Genoa. First to depict mythical Atlantic island of "Brasil", off the Irish coast.

• 1336 - First alleged Portuguese expedition to the Canary Islands, commanded by Genoese captain Lancelotto Malocello (either returned, or for the first time; alternative date for the discovery of Lanzarote island).

• 1337 - In the Luso-Castilian War (between Afonso IV of Portugal and Alfonso XI of Castile), Manuel Pessanha's fledgling Portuguese fleet of 20 galleys is defeated by the Castilan navy of 30 galleys under Alonso Jofre Tenorio at the Battle of Cape St. Vincent in July 1337.

Portolan of Angelino Dulcert (1399)

• 1339 - Portolan chart by Angelino Dulcert of Majorca (prob. same person as "Dalorto", 1325). First to show the Canary islands of Lanzarote (marked by a Genoese shield, on account of Lancelotto Malocello) and Fuerteventura. Also seems to indicate the islands of Madeira, nearly a century before their official discovery. Depicts the Trans-Saharan route to the gold mine of a Saracen king (Mali Empire). Shows Cape Non and several points south of it, suggesting that Cape Non, the non plus ultra of navigation, had been surpassed by now.

• 1340 - At Castile's request, the Portuguese fleet under Manuel Pessanha blockades Tarifa, thereby stranding a Marinid invasion force from Morocco, which is subsequently defeated at the Battle of Salado.

• 1341 - Expedition sponsored by King Afonso IV of Portugal to map the Canary Islands (Ilhas Afortunadas). Three ships, led by the Florentine Angiolino del Tegghia de Corbizzi and the Genoese Nicoloso da Recco, proceed to map thirteen islands and record its aboriginal Guanche inhabitants. Mapping accelerates interest in the Canaries as a potential slave-raiding ground. It is sometimes conjectured that the 1341 expedition may have returned to Lisbon by following the volta do mar, and possibly discovered the (uninhabited) Azores islands in the process (although this is speculative).

• 1342 Following up on the 1341 report, Majorcan merchants organize two expeditions to the Canary islands, one under Francesc Duvalers, the other Domenech Gual. Objective is commercial (probable slave-raid). There were probably other (unrecorded) slave-raiding expeditions from other ports (e.g. Lisbon, Seville) around this time.

• 1344 Kingdom of Majorca annexed by King Peter IV of Aragon. Majorcan navigational efforts will continue under the Aragonese flag.

• 1344 - Avignon Pope Clement VI grants the Canary Islands as an sovereign fief ("Principality of Fortuna") to the Spanish-French admiral Luis de la Cerda, with the objective of conquering the islands and converting the natives. The Portuguese king Afonso IV lodges a protest, claiming priority of discovery. Although the Pope gives Cerda's venture the privileges of a Crusade and orders the Iberian monarchs to provide material support for an expedition, no expedition will be mounted before Cerda's death in 1348.

• 1346 - Majorcan captain Jaume Ferrer sails down the Atlantic coast of west Africa, intending to reach the legendary 'River of Gold' (as reported by Trans-Saharan traders, probably the Senegal River which flowed into the heart of the gold-producing Mali Empire). It is alleged that Ferrer passed Cape Non and even Cape Bojador, but nothing more is known of it, presumed lost.

Medici Atlas (1351)

• 1351 - Medici Atlas (Laurentian Gaddiano), first map to incorporate the information reported by Venetian traveler Marco Polo. Depiction of Africa is remarkably prescient - with the bend of the Gulf of Guinea and the southern promotory of Africa, suggesting a sea passage between the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. Also depicts the islands of Madeira, and the first to depict the seven island archipelago of the Azores (all which are officially undiscovered). Although notionally dated 1351, map is thought done too well for the time and suspected of probably being c.1370.

• 1351-52 Avignon Pope Clement VII and Peter IV of Aragon endorse Majorcan expedition, organized by Joan Doria and Jaume Segarra, and captained by Arnau Roger to claim the Canary islands for the crown of Aragon and to carry the first Christian missionaries to the Guanche natives. Pope also erects and appoints first nominal Bishop of Fortuna. Outcome of expedition uncertain. Apocryphally said to have established a mission at Telde(on Gran Canaria)

• 1364 Alleged date of a mythical French expedition, organized by the merchants of Dieppe and Rouen, that sailed beyond Cape Bojador and set up a string of French trading stations on the Guinea coast. Story fabricated in 1669 by Villaut de Bellefond to advance French colonial claims, thoroughly discredited.

• 1366- King Peter IV of Aragon dispatches Joan Mora to assert the rights of the Crown of Aragon over the Canary islands and patrol for "enemy" interlopers. . Identity of the interlopers is unspecified (Castilians? Portuguese? Moroccans?)

1367 chart of the Pizzigani brothers.

• 1367 - Brothers Domenico and Francesco Pizzigano compose portolan chart. Shows almost complete Canary islands, Madeira and the the Azores (and, depending on how one dates the Medici Atlas, the first to do so). Also the first appearance of the mythical island of Mam. The 'River of Gold' (Senegal River, which they call the Palolus) is also depicted explicitly (albeit speculatively) for the first time. The river is shown emptying into the Atlantic somwhere south of Cape Non (Caput finis Gozola).

• 1369 - Pope Urban V issues bull resurrecting diocese of Fortuna (cf.1352), and ordering Aragonese bishops to dispatch missionaries to Canary islands. Results unknown.

• 1369 Outbreak of the Fernandine Wars between Ferdinand of Portugal and Henry of Trastamara, for the throne of Castile, which will run on-and-off until 1382. Portuguese fleet under Lançarote Pessanha blockades Seville. Various Portuguese and Castilian privateers reportedly visit the Canary islands, using them as temporary bases and hideouts.

• c.1370 Probable date of Medici Atlas (see 1351). Also probable date of composition of the Libro del Conoscimiento, an imaginary travelogue by an anonymous Castilian friar, who supposedly visited various kingdoms in west Africa. Geographical details draw closely on the Medici Atlas. Names all the Azores islands. Also refers to the River of Gold and the existence of the Gulf of Guinea.

• 1370 Ferdinand I of Portugal granted (in 1370) the islands of Lanzarote and La Gomera to the adventurer 'Lançarote da Franquia' (believed by some to be none other than the impossibly-aged Lanceloto Malocello). This Lanzarote made an attempt to seize the islands and is reported to have engaged in fighting with "Guanches and Castilians" there.

• c.1373 - King Ferdinand of Portugal separates the commands of the galley fleet and the sail fleet (alto-bordo). The Admiral of Portugal (then held by the Pessanha family) retains command of the galleys, while a new office is created, the capitão-mor da frota ("captain-major of the fleet") for Gonçalo Tenreiro, who is given command of the sail fleet.

Catalan Atlas (1375)

• 1375 - Catalan Atlas composed by Abraham Cresques of Majorca. World map, depicts sea access to Indian Ocean, and a myriad of Atlantic islands (Canaries almost perfect; Azores as fantastic islands). Also shows locations of Cape Non, Cape Juby ('Cabo de Sabuim') and Cape Bojador ('Buyteder'), the River of Gold (Senegal River) and Trans-Saharn route to the Mali Empire. First indication of Jaume Ferrer's journey of 1346.

• 1377 - King Ferdinand I of Portugal establishes the Companhia das Naus, a marine insurance company requiring compulsory enlistment by ships greater than 50 tons, with insurance premiums paid into two funds, one in Lisbon, another in Porto, of two crowns per hundred, with payouts for any losses (forfeit if they deliberately ventured into hostile waters). Ferdinand places his own twelve ships in this company.

• 1383-1385 - Crisis of Succession with the death of the Ferdinand of Portugal, the Portuguese crown is to be inherited by John I of Castile. But a faction of Portuguese nobles refuse and attempt to elevate an illegitimate line, represented by John of Avis, as the new monarch. A war of succession ensues, in which the Portuguese navy has a brief role in helping break the Castilian siege of Lisbon in 1384. After his victory over Castile at the at the Battle of Aljubarrota in 1385, John of Avis ascends as King John I of Portugal. Beginning of Avis dynasty.

• 1391 - Spanish noble-pirate Almonaster raids Lanzarote, one of several Iberian raids on the Canary Islands in the 1390s. The arrival of Guanche captives and goods in the court of Henry III of Castile whet the appetites of other adventurers.

• 1399 - In an effort to quelch pirates operating out of Moroccan ports and preying on shipping through the Straits of Gibraltar, King Henry III of Castile launches an amphibian expedition across the straits and raids the Moroccan port of Tétouan, a corsairs nest. It is the first documented lunge by an Iberian power across the water to North Africa. Affronted, piracy in the straits actually steps up in response.

• 1402 - Castilian conquest of the Canaries Henry III of Castile authorizes Norman knights Jean de Béthencourt and Gadifer de la Salle to conquer of the Canary Islands. Facing fierce resistance by the aboriginal Guanches, it is a process that will take nearly three-quarters of a century.

The Ptolemy world map, based on the Ptolemy's Geographia.

• c.1410 - Ptolemy's Geographia, composed 150 AD, rediscovered in Constantinople c.1300, is brought to the Latin West. Map introduces use of latitude and longitude grid (rather than compass angle lines). Depicts Indian Ocean as an enclosed sea.

• 1411 - King John I of Portugal finally signs a truce with John II of Castile, ending the Luso-Castilian conflict that begun in 1383.

Henry Era

1412

• 1412 - (Uncertain) King John I of Portugal sends out expeditions to the Moroccan coast (probably naval patrols to stem piracy). It is possible some of these Portuguese ships surpass Cabo Não (Cape Non) at this time and possibly also Cape Juby, thus setting up Cape Bojador as their next milestone. [Cape Non 28°47′N 11°04′W]

1415

Conquest of Ceuta (repr. 20th C. tiles in Porto, Portugal)

• July-August, 1415 - Conquest of Ceuta Massive Portuguese expeditionary force captures Ceuta from the Marinids of Fez by surprise (see Battle of Ceuta). Fleet estimated at 59 galleys, 33 naus, 120 smaller boats, and 50,000 men (of which 20,000 are men-at-arms) Motives uncertain and varied explanations have been offered. In light of recent Castilian adventures against Moroccan ports and Canaries, may just be an attempt by the Portuguse to secure a foothold in Morocco and prevent Castile from seizing both sides of the straits. The conquest of Ceuta sees the military debut of John I's five adolescent sons (Ínclita geração) - princes Edward of Portugal (future king), Peter of Coimbra (future regent), Henry of Viseu (future Navigator), John of Reguengos (future Constable) and Ferdinand the Saint (future martyr). Their illegitimate half-brother, Afonso of Barcelos (future Duke of Braganza) also participates.

• 1415 - (Unlikely) It is said that a certain João de Trasto, reaches the Canary island of Gran Canaria. However, as there is no record of this expedition other than the unreliable Diogo Gomes, it might just be a mistaken reference to the 1424 expedition of Fernando de Castro (see below).

1416

• February, 1416 - John I of Portugal appoints his younger sons Peter as Duke of Coimbra and Henry as Duke of Viseu. That same month, John I places young Henry in charge of the maintenance and supply of Ceuta (the Ceuta garrison itself is placed in under Pedro de Menezes, Count of Viana). . It is probably only now, given his new duty to Ceuta, that Henry begins dispatching naval patrols (probably out of the Algarve port of Lagos) to reconnaitre, harass and bottle up ports on the Moroccan coast. To better supervise these operations, Henry himself begins spending his time in the Algarve. The Casa da Ceuta, a set of royal warehouses and offices, is set up around this time in Lisbon to handle the logistics of the provisioning.

• 1416 Ceuta commander Pedro de Menezes, Count of Viana), builds and arms a fusta, Santiago Pé de Prata, placing it under the command of Portuguese nobleman-corsair Afonso Garcia de Queirós, to patrol the waters around Ceuta. Within its first year of operation, Queirós captures two rich Moroccan merchant ships in the straits, and another third ship in a night raid on the harbor of Gibraltar and defeats two notable Moroccan corsairs, known as Boboramonte and Bermirgao.

• 1416 (Unlikely) Alleged date of Frei Gonçalo Velho's trip to 'Terra Alta' (see 1426).

1417

• 1417 - Afonso Garcia de Queirós leads the Ceuta naval patrol in an attack on Marbella (on the coast of Granada), but is repulsed.

Map of region around Ceuta (1954 map), showing the locations of Targa, Tiguisas and El Jebha (Puerto Capaz)

• 1417 - Moroccan corsairs raid Ceuta harbor and seize a Portuguese ship. They are tracked down to corsair port of Tagacete on the Alboran Sea coast by a Portuguese patrol led by Diogo Vasques de Portocarreiro. An attack by corsair Gonçalo Vasques de Ferreira off Almeria

1418

• April, 1418 - Pope Martin V issues bull Rex Regnum endorsing the Portuguese conquest of Ceuta and giving their conquest of Morocco the privileges of a crusade.

• August-Sep, 1418 (or 1419) - The Marinid rulers of Morocco, with the assistance of a fleet from Granada, lay siege to Ceuta. Young Henry of Viseu leads a Portuguese fleet to relieve Ceuta and lift the siege.

• November, 1418 - Facing fierce resistance from native Guanches, Castilian conquest of the Canary Islands grinds to a halt. With the permission of King John II of Castile, title-holder Jean de Béthencourt sells his hereditary capitancy of the conquered islands (Lanzarote, Fuerteventura and possibly Hierra) to high Castilian nobleman Enrique Pérez de Guzmán y Castilla, Count of Niebla. The claim on the unconquered islands (La Palma, La Gomera, Tenerife and Gran Canaria) will be sold by the Castilian crown to Alfonso de la Casas in 1420.

• October, 1418 - John of Reguengos (son of John I) is appointed head of the Order of Santiago in Portugal.

The Madeira island group

• 1418 or 1419 - Discovery of Madeira group Portuguese coastal patrol off Morocco, under Henry's squires João Gonçalves Zarco and Tristão Vaz Teixeira (possibly as privateers), is blown off course and stumbles on Porto Santo Island (northeast of Madeira). Although islands probably already known before (they are depicted on earlier portolan maps), this is the official discovery date.

1419

• 1419 - Alternative date for the Marinid siege of Ceuta (see above).

• 1419 - Alternative date for the discovery of Porto Santo, Madeira (see above)

1420

• 1420 - Henry's captains João Gonçalves Zarco and Tristão Vaz Teixeira, accompanied by the Luso-Genoese Bartolomeu Perestrello return to Porto Santo. They discover the larger nearby island of Madeira proper John I of Portugal will assign three donatary captaincies (capitanias) over the islands among the discoverers: Zarco receives Funchal (south Madeira), Teixeira receives Machico (north Madeira) and Perestrello receives Porto Santo Island. Unlike the Canaries, the Madeira islands are uninhabited, so the captains set about luring colonists (and slaves) to develop the islands.

• 1420 - Palace coup in Fez, assassination of the Marinid Sultan Abu Said Uthman III, leaving only a child as heir. Effective power in the Fez court is seized by the Wattasids, headed by strongman vizier Abu Zakariya Yahya. But regional governors refuse to recognize his authority and Morocco falls into anarchy. Pressure on Portuguese-held Ceuta is released as Morocco sorts itself out.

Henry the Navigator, Duke of Viseu

• May, 1420 - John I of Portugal secures the appointment of his son Henry the Navigator, Duke of Viseu, as the new master of the Order of Christ.

• c.1420 - School of Sagres Henry of Viseu ('the Navigator') moves to the Algarve to better oversee his role in the provisioning of Ceuta. Shortly after, Henry will invite the Majorcan cartographer Mestre Jácome de Maiorca (once believed to be Jehuda Cresques, but no longer), who will help spur and supervise the development of Portuguese cartography and nautical technology (instrument-making and vessel design). Most of the nautical activity is actually centered at the Algarve port of Lagos, tradition has called it the 'Sagres School' (after the naval support station and residence, the Vila do Infante, Henry will eventually build at Sagres, a windswept promontory on the southwest corner of Portugal.).

1422

• 1422 - (Uncertain) Henry dispatches first expedition down the Moroccan coast with the intention of surpassing Cape Bojador. It will take multiple attempts (as many as fifteen in twelve years)) before it finally succeeds.

1423

• 1423 - John I of Portugal appoints Álvaro Vaz de Almada, Count of Avranches as capitão-mor da frota (head of the sail-powered fleet). Carlos Pessanha II continues as admiral of Portugal (head of the galley fleet).

1424

• 1424 - Given the pause in the Castilian conquest of the Canary islands, Henry persuades his father, John I to authorize an armed Portuguese expedition under Fernando de Castro to capture the four unconquered islands (Gran Canaria, Tenerife, La Gomera, La Palma) for Portugal. Large expeditionary force lands on island of Gran Canaria, but the venture is repulsed by local Guanches. Castile lodges protest.

1424 portolan of Zuane Pizzigano

• 1424 - Venetian cartographer Zuane Pizzigano (son of the Pizzigani brothers of the 1369 map) composes a world map showing Madeira and Canaries properly.

1426

• 1426 - Battista Beccario's world map, depicting four Atlantic islands.

• 1426 - (Uncertain) Frei Gonçalo Velho Cabral, a monk-knight of Henry's Order of Christ, sails down the Moroccan coast as far as 'Terra Alta' (somewhere short of Cape Bojador)

1427

• 1427 - (Uncertain) Portuguese royal pilot Diogo de Silves discovers the Azores, possibly in the course of a return trip from Madeira. (alleged on note in the 1439 map of Gabriel de Vallseca; there is no other existing record of this trip).

1428

• 1428 - Henry's brother, Portuguese Prince Peter of Coimbra, returns from his European tour, bringing back a copy of Marco Polo's travels and a valuable Venetian mappa mundi (cartographer uncertain).

1431

The Azores archipelago, from c.1584

• 1431 - Discovery of the Azores group A Henrican captain (assumed to be Frei Gonçalo Velho Cabral, a monk-knight of Henry's Order of Christ), officially discovers the Azores (possibly already sighted in 1427, if not earlier). Gonçalo Velho probably only finds the Formigas on this trip. Other islands will be discovered later.

1432

• August, 1432 - Second trip of Frei Gonçalo Velho Cabral (more certain) to the Azores. Discovers Santa Maria Island this time around, and leaves some sheep loose on the island.

• October, 1432 - Treaty of Medina-del-Campo between John I of Portugal and John II of Castile, swearing perpetual peace between the two countries. Among the stipulations it is alleged that Castilian & Portuguese recognize each others Atlantic possessions and Portugal's right of conquest in Morocco.

1433

• August, 1433 - Death of John I of Portugal. His eldest son (Henry's brother) ascends as King Edward of Portugal.

• September, 1433 - Edward of Portugal issues royal letter issuing lifetime grant on the island group of Madeira & Porto Santo to Henry the Navigator, followed up by another letter granting Henry's Order of Christ exclusive spiritual juridisction over the islands. That same month, Edward also grants Henry a monopoly on tuna fishing in the Algarve and the islands, and a monopoly on soap-making throughout Portugal. Already in the process of being colonized, Henry renews the three Madeira capitaincies (Zarco, Teixeira, Perestrello). Soon after this, Henry steps up colonization of the islands, focusing on the harvesting of timber, resin dyes, wine and eventually bringing Italian expertise from Sicily and Cyprus to settle and introduce sugar plantations on the islands.

• 1433 - Edward of Portugal grants Frei Gonçalo Velho Cabral the captaincy of the Azores (Santa Maria and Formigas only).

1434

Gil Eanes

• 1434 (or 1433) - Passage of Cape Bojador After multiple attempts, Henry's squire Gil Eanes, on a single-mast barca, finally sails past the psychological barrier of Cape Bojador, opening exploration down the western African coast. As previous ventures might have been to already-known coasts and islands, the Portuguese 'Era of Discoveries' is sometimes dated as starting here. [Cape Bojador: 26°07′37″N 14°29′57″W]

• 1434 - 32 point compass introduced (replacing the old 12 points).

• September, 1434 Ferdinand the Saint (brother of Henry) becomes head of the Order of Aviz. The three main Portuguese military orders are in the hands of King Edward's brothers John (Santiago since 1418), Henry (Christ since 1420) and Ferdinand (Avis now).

1435

• January, 1435 - Pope Eugenius IV issues the bull Sicut Dudum, asserting that the aboriginal Guanches of the Canary Islands are not animals, but men with souls and may not be enslaved.

• 1435 (or 1434) - Expedition under Henry's squires Gil Eanes and Afonso Gonçalves Baldaia reaches Angra dos Ruivos (Garnet Bay), some 50 leagues (250 km) south of Cape Bojador. They see traces of men - footprints and camels, but encounter no one. This expedition inaugurates the deep-hulled, two-mast barinel, a larger vessel than the barca commonly used before that. [Angra dos Ruivos 24°40′N 14°56′W]

1436

Cape Juby

Cape Bojador

A. Ruivos

A. Cavallos

Rio do Ouro

Pedra da Galé

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Portuguese exploration milestones 1434-36 in Western Sahara

• 1436 (or 1435) - Rio do Ouro - Henry's captain Afonso Gonçalves Baldaia (possibly again with Eanes, on a barinel) sets out down the African coast, with instructions to bring back a native inhabitant. Anchoring at Angra dos Cavallos (around Point Elbow), Baldaia's expeditions spots a native party and dispatches horsemen after it, but to no avail. Proceeding south, Baldaia discovers a coastal inlet which he names Rio do Ouro (modern Dakhla), thinking it was the mouth of the legendary 'river of gold' (prob. Senegal River, spoken of by Trans-Saharan traders). From there, Baldaia goes further south, crossing the Tropic of Cancer (possibly the first crossing of that latitude by a European). Baldaia sails a little past Pedra da Galé (Galha Point, a galley-shaped island off Cape Barbas). He finds nothing but some abandoned fishing nets. Baldaia takes the nets and sets sail home, with little to show for it but a cargo of seal pelts and oil (prob. monk seals, hunted by the crew while anchored in Rio do Ouro). In all, Baldaia has sailed some 125 miles south of last year's furthest point (Angra dos Ruivos). [Angra dos Cavallos 24°04′N 15°35′W; Rio do Ouro 23°39′N 16°00′W; Pedra da Galé 22°12′36″N 16°48′0″W]

• April, 1436 Cortes of Evora assembled by Edward of Portugal to consider plans for a military campaign against Morocco. His younger brothers are divided - Henry the Navigator and Ferdinand the Saint press for an expedition to seize Tangiers, while Peter of Coimbra and John of Reguengos (now Constable) oppose the scheme, urging concentration on domestic matters. Burgher delegates are divided - large port cities like Lisbon, Porto and Lagos are for the expedition, smaller towns are against it.

• September, 1436 At the request of Henry the Navigator, Pope Eugenius IV issues bulls Rex Regnum blessing the Tangiers enterprise and Romanus Pontifex recognizing Portuguese right of conquest over Marinid Morocco, and the unconquered Canary Islands. But at the Council of Basel, Alfonso de Cartagena, Bishop of Burgos, protests and sets out the Castilian claim on the islands with a mountain of legal evidence. Pope Eugenius IV withdraws the bull's provisions a month later, and assigns the Canaries in favor of Castile.

1437

• August, 1437 - Tangiers Expedition Edward of Portugal dispatches Portuguese expedition to conquer Tangiers, personally led by Henry the Navigator. It is a debacle. Portuguese are trapped and defeated by Wattasid ruler Abu Zakariya of Morocco. To save his army from destruction, Henry accepts humiliating terms, promising to cede Ceuta back to the Morocco, and handing over his younger brother Ferdinand the Saint as a hostage until the fulfillment of the treaty. However, the Portuguese Cortes insist on holding Ceuta and refuse to ratify the treaty. Ferdinand the Saint will be forced to languish in a Moroccan jail in Fez until his death in 1443. The Tangiers fiasco is a tremendous blow to Henry's personal prestige and his expeditions are suspended.

1438

• September 1438 - Death of Edward of Portugal. His young son ascends as King Alfonso V of Portugal, under the regency of Edward's widow Eleanor of Aragon. But this arrangement is disputed immediately by the burghers, who prefer Edward's brother Peter of Coimbra. Peter's brother and close ally, John of Reguengos, Constable of Portugal, quickly seizes control of Lisbon and assembles a burgher-packed Cortes to elect Peter of Coimbra as regent for his nephew Alfonso V. But the Portuguese aristocracy, led by half-brother Afonso of Barcelos, urge Eleanor to hold on to regency herself. A tense power-sharing arrangement ensues. Regent Peter of Coimbra and Afonso of Barcelos (through Eleanor) engage in a struggle for influence over the young king. Henry the Navigator's role in all this is murky. It is believed he sided with Afonso's party against Peter, possibly calculating that he could extract lucrative grants (Azores, etc.) from Peter as the price of switching his support.

1439

• 1439 - Map of Gabriel de Valseca of Majorca, showing eight islands of the Azores. It is this map that includes the only note crediting 'Diogo Silves' for discovering the islands in 1427.

• July, 1439 - Peter of Coimbra grants the Azores to Henry the Navigator, who in turns passes them on as a captaincy to Frei Gonçalo Velho Cabral. The donatary letter refers to seven islands, possibly including some of the central cluster. The first colony is established by Gonçalo Velho on Santa Maria Island around that same time.

1441

A lateen-rigged caravel

• 1441 - Renewal of Henry's Expeditions (interrupted since 1436). Henry the Navigator dispatches two ships, one under the young Antão Gonçalves, another under Nuno Tristão, both of Henry's household. This is the maiden trip of the caravel (caravela latina), a new lateen-rigged, two-mast shallow-draft ship, recently developed by Henry's 'Sagres School'. They are given separate instructions: Antão Gonçalves is to go on a monk seal hunt around Rio do Ouro and bring back furs and oil, while Nuno Tristão is given the exploratory mission of sailing past Baldaia's last point (Pedra da Galé).

• 1441 - Leaving first, Antão Gonçalves undertakes the seal hunt at Rio do Ouro, but decides to venture further himself, going as far south as Porto do Cavaleiro (prob. Point Corveiro). There, he goes ashore and manages to capture a solitary camel-driver, the first African encountered (and captured) by Henry's ships. Returning north, Gonçalves meets up with Nuno Tristão at Rio do Ouro, and they attempt to interrogate the captive. At length, Antão Gonçalves and Nuno Tristão combine forces, return to the Cavaleiro shore and fall upon a small fishing camp. They capture some ten natives, apparently Muslim Sanhaja Berbers (Azenegues). For this exploit, Nuno Tristão knights Gonçalves on the spot (ergo 'cavaleiro'). They send out a translator to search for their captives' home settlement to negotiate a ransom. While awaiting the results, a hundred-strong Berber party ambushes the camp and forces the Portuguese back to their ships. The fate of the translator is unknown. [Porto do Cavaleiro 21°48′N 16°58′W]

• 1441 - Cape Blanc - Antão Gonçalves returns with the captives to Portugal, the first African captives brought to Portugal. Nuno Tristão, adhering to his separate instructions, sails past Baldaia's last point (Pedra da Galé) and discovers Cabo Branco (Cape Blanc, the Nouadhibou headland in Mauritania). He finds only some fishing nets, and turns back. [Cabo Branco 20°48′N 17°05′W]

1442

• 1442 On Henry's instructions, Antão Gonçalves returns to Porto do Cavaleiro with three of the Sanhaja captives, who assure the Portuguese they are 'nobles' and can be ransomed for pagan black slaves. After lingering for a week anchored at Rio do Ouro, a Berber party finally meets the ship and exchanges the three Sanhaja nobles for ten black slaves, some gold dust and ostrich eggs. Gonçalves's rewards (particularly the gold dust) are a sensation back in Portugal. (the name 'Rio de Ouro' may have its origin from this encounter).

Cross of the Order of Christ

• December, 1442 - With the identification of Muslim Sanhaja on the Mauritanian coast, at Henry's request, Pope Eugenius IV issues bull Illius qui se pro divini granting indulgences to knights of the Order of Christ who crusade against the 'Saracens' in west Africa. In effect, this gives Henry's expeditions the character of a crusade and thus an inducement for knights to sign up in Henry's expeditions.

• 1442-43 - Titular Squabbles Death of John of Reguengos, Constable and Master of Santiago, brother and close ally of regent Peter of Coimbra, in October 1442, prompts a family squabble. Regent Peter of Coimbra appoints John's son Diogo as the new Constable of Portugal and master of the Order of Santiago, but this annoys Peter's rival and half-brother Afonso of Barcelos, who believes he had been promised to succeed to the titles himself. The premature death of Constable Diogo in 1443 rekindles the crisis. Peter of Coimbra overlooks Afonso again and appoints his own son, also named Peter, as the new Constable. In compensation, Peter of Coimbra creates the title of Duke of Braganza and grants it to Afonso. Peter of Coimbra passes the mastership of Santiago to his nephew Ferdinand, Prince of Portugal, the younger brother and heir presumptive of the young king Afonso V of Portugal. That same year (June, 1443), the captive brother Ferdinand the Saint dies in a Moroccan jail, and Constable Peter is made the new master of the Order of Aviz. Henry the Navigator's position in all this is murky, but he is believed to have supported half-brother Afonso of Barcelos-Braganza against full brother Peter of Coimbra. The grant of African monopoly (1443) may have been Peter's way of buying off Henry.

1443

Cape Blanc and the Bay of Arguin

• 1443 - Arguin Banks - Henry's knight Nuno Tristão sets out in a caravel with a small crew, and heads straight for Cape Blanc, going beyond it, and sailing into the Bay of Arguin (shallow banks off the Mauritanian coast, attractive fishing grounds). For the first time, a permanent settlement is seen - a fishing village on Arguin island (on the north end of the bay). Curious, the fishing folk paddle out on their canoes, but the Portuguese set upon and capture fourteen of them. They proceed to the nearby island of Garças (Heron island) for refreshment, before returning back to Portugal with their captives. The prospect of easy and profitable slave-raiding grounds in the Arguin bay prompt numerous Portuguese merchants and adventurers to apply to Henry for license. [Arguin Island 20°36′N 16°27′W]

• October, 1443 - Henry's Monopoly Prince Henry the Navigator receives letters patent from his brother regent Peter of Coimbra granting him a personal monopoly over all navigation south of Cape Bojador, whether for the purpose of war or trade. Any ship sailing south of it without Henry'license can be confiscated. Peter's letters also grant Henry the royal fifth and customs duties (tenth on imports) normally due to the Portuguese crown, on any African plunder or trade.

1444

Note on 1444-46: While most sources are generally in agreement on prior expeditions, the timing & sequence of the expeditions of the years 1444-47 are more varied and conflicting. Note also that as the first year of monopoly, the degree of Henry's involvement is obscure. Some were indeed organized and outfitted by Henry. But others were fully private initiatives, with Henry's participation limited to granting them a license.

• May, 1444 - São Miguel Island of the Azores is discovered, apparently first sighted on from across the water by a fugitive black slave on the hills of Santa Maria Island. Captain-donatary Frei Gonçalo Velho Cabral seizes the new island and establishes its first settlement at Povoação Velha. Gonçalo Velho applies for an extension of his capitaincy to cover the new island. It is at this time that the island group (Formigas, S. Maria, S. Miguel) is first referred to as the "Azores", named after the açores (goshawks) found there.

Old Customs house of Lagos, Portugal, site of the first African slave market in Europe

• 1444 - First Slave Raid A Company of Lagos merchants, headed by Lançarote de Freitas, almoxarife of Lagos, receive a license from Henry for a slave raid on the African coast. The company equips six caravels (one of which is commanded by Gil Eanes, another by Estêvão Afonso), which head out straight to the Bay of Arguin. They raid the cluster of settlements on the southern end of Arguin bay at Nar (Nair island), Tider (Tidra island) and Cerina (Serenni peninsula). They capture some 235 hapless natives in a few days, and immediately return to Portugal with their human cargo by August. [Nar 19°51′46″N 16°24′35″W, Tider 19°45′N 16°24′W, Cerina 16°20′N 16°20′W]

• Late 1444 (or 1445) - Soon after Lançarote's return, Henry dispatches a household servant Gonçalo de Sintra with strict instructions to sail straight to the 'Land of Guinea'. But disobeying Henry's instructions, Sintra decides to make a quick slave-raiding stop on the Arguin banks. After a futile stop on Arguin island, he tries Nair island. Sintra's landing party is ambushed by a hidden group of Berbers. Gonçalo de Sintra and his companions are killed, the first known Portuguese casualties on this coast. [Note: some locate this event further north, just south of Rio do Ouro, at a place since called Angra de Cintra (Cintra's Bay). ][Angra de Cintra 22°58′N 16°10′W]

• 1444 Niccolò de' Conti, a Venetian traveler who had spent a great time in Arabia, India and South-East Asia (Malay, Sumatra), returns to Venice and reports his findings.

1445

• 1445 (or 1444) Henry licenses a three-ship expedition composed of Antão Gonçalves, Diogo Afonso, and Gomes Pires (commanding a ship outfitted by the regent Peter of Coimbra) to Rio do Ouro attempt to make contact with the locals and find the source of the gold dust obtained the previous year. But they have no luck finding anyone (whatever locals there were, news of Lançarote's raid probably sent them into hiding). One of Henry's squires, João Fernandes volunteers to be left on the shore and do some scouting. For the next seven months, João Fernandes will live and travel among the Sanhaja pastoralists and nomads of the western Sahara, going as far inland as the walled town of Ouadane (on the Trans-Saharan route).

• 1445 (or 1444) In a separate ship sent by Henry, Nuno Tristão pushes south and finally sees the desert end and the tree line begin, and the population change from Sanhaja Berbers (Azenegues) to Wolofs (Jalofos). He probably reaches as far as Ponta da Berbéria (Barbary Point or Langue de Barbarie), the long, thin sandbank peninsula that blocks the entrance to the Senegal River. Bad weather forces him to turn back before entering the Senegal. Nonetheless, Tristão returns with the news that he has finally discovered the Terra de Negros ('Land of the Blacks'). On his return, Tristão stops by the Arguin banks and does a slave-raid of his own, taking some 21 captives. [Ponta da Berbéria 15°58′6″N 16°30′43″W]

Old map of Senegal

• 1445 (or 1444) Discovery of Senegal Old knight Dinis Dias (or Dinis Fernandes), seeking to repay a debt to Henry, arms a ship on his own account and proceeds south, beyond Tristão's last point. Dias discovers the mouth of the Senegal River, the true 'river of gold' that flows into the heart of the Mali Empire. Nonetheless, Dinis decides to press south. At some point, while cruising along the Grande Côte, Dinis is approached by a few natives on canoes, and quickly takes four captive (the first black slaves captured in their own country). This is probably around Yoff bay, where Dias sights the ilha da Palma (Yoff island). Pressing on, Dinis Dias discovers the great headland of Cabo Verde (Cape Vert). Dinis doubles the cape and sails into the bay of Bezeguiche (Bay of Dakar) and anchors at Gorée island (ilha de Bezeguiche). He erects a wooden cross on the island and sets sail back. Dinis Dias's bold venture has advanced the expeditions by a considerable length of coast. [Senegal river 16°02′N 16°29′W, Palma (Yoff) 14°46′10″N 17°28′40″W, Cape Verde 14°44′N 17°31′W, Bezeguiche (Gorée) 14°39′59″N 17°23′53″W]

Cape Saint Ann (Arguim) 20°30′N 17°0′W

Ponta da Berbéria 15°58′6″N 16°30′43″W

Palma de Budomel (uncertain, somewhere around the latitude of modern Kébémer, poss. Diournel) 15°24′8″N 16°46′4″W

Cabo dos Mastos (Cape de Naze) 14°32′33″N 17°6′21″W or 14°32′14″N 17°6′14″W

Red Cape? 14°38′5″N 17°10′24″W of SENEGAL is different!

Cape Roxo 12°20′N 16°43′W ??

Cabo Vela (Ponta Varela) 12°16′55″N 16°35′23″W

Rio Grande (Geba River) 11°46′19″N 15°36′36″W

Cabo Liedo (Cape Sierra Leone) 8°30′N 13°18′W

Cape Saint Ann (Sierra Leone) 7°34′N 12°57′W

Cape Mesurado 6°19′0″N 10°49′10″W

Cabo de Sancta Maria (Bassa Point) 6°06′N 10°22′W

Cape Palmas 4°22′6″N 7°44′15″W or 4°21′52″N 7°43′46″W

Rio do Soeiro (Komoé River) 5°11′52″N 3°43′34″W

Cadamosto's letter in English: on Budomel's location

Gazeteer: vol 2 B-C Sailing directions modern

Wikipedia:Obtaining geographic coordinates

Dias Dinis, A.J. editor, (1967), Monumenta Henricina (Vol 8 - 1443-1445)

1446

• 1446 (or 1445) Return expedition of Antão Gonçalves, accompanied by the caravels of Garcia Mendes (or Garcia Homem) and Diogo Afonso to pick up overland explorer João Fernandes. They make a raiding stop at Arguin island, taking some 25 captives, destroying the main Berber village on Arguin island in the process. They proceed to find overland explorer João Fernandes at Cabo do Resgate (Cape Ransom, uncertain location, somewhere south of Arguin), escorted by some Berber traders, who sell the Portuguese nine black slaves and some gold dust. Before leaving, they plant a wooden cross at Cape Blanc, with a note informing future captains about the fate of Arguin island. [Cabo do Resgate? Cap el Sass 20°25′30″N 16°21′42″W or Cap Tafarit 20°7′44″N 16°15′43″W]

• 1446 (or 1445) - Second Slave Raid Chroniclers agree that twenty-six ships set out from various ports (Lisbon, Madeira, Lagos) for a second wave of slave raids on the Arguin banks, but disagree on the year. We have set it in 1446, but could be 1445 or 1447. Among those that set out:
  • Madeira squadron - Three caravels set out from Madeira, led by Tristão Vaz Teixeira (donatary of Machico), Álvaro de Ornellas and António/Álvaro Fernandes (nephew of Funchal donatary João Gonçalves Zarco). Probably intending a slave-raid on the Arguin banks.
  • Lisbon squadron - Gonçalo Pacheco, treasurer of Casa de Ceuta, outfits a three-caravel expedition in Lisbon under the command of Dinis Eanes de Grã (squire of regent Peter of Coimbra), the other two captained by Álvaro Gil (of the Lisbon mint) and a certain 'Mafaldo of Setubal'.
  • Lagos squadron - The Company of Lagos sends out of massive fleet of fourteen ships for a slave-raid on Arguin banks. It is led by Lançarote de Freitas, and includes Soeiro da Costa (alcaide of Lagos and Lançarote's father-in-law), Álvaro de Freitas, Gomes Pires (commander of the king's galley), Rodrigo Eanes Travassos (of the household of the regent Peter of Coimbra) and a certain knight known as Palançano aboard a fusta (the rest are on caravels). This fleet may have carried Gil Eanes and Estêvão Afonso as passengers. It sets out in August.
  • Other captains - (uncertain from where) set out for Arguin, including Senegal discoverer Dinis Dias/Fernandes (commanding a ship outfitted by royal chamberlain D. Álvaro de Castro, Count of Monsanto), and João de Castilha (captaining a ship belonging to Álvaro Gonçalves de Ataíde, Count of Atouguia).

• 1446 - Madeira trio is caught up by bad weather near Cape Blanc, two of the caravels (Teixera and Ornellas) turn back, but the third (Álvaro Fernandes) presses forward.

• 1446 - Rather than returning to Madeira empty-handed, captain Álvaro de Ornellas makes a slaving stop on the Canary island of La Palma, taking two natives captive. Then, after quickly refitting the ship in Lisbon with the help of his cousin, João de Ornellas, he sets out again immediately on a second raid. With the help of some natives of la Gomera, Ornellas takes another 20 Guanche captives from La Palma.

Cliffs of Popenguine, just above the Cape of Masts (Cap de Naze), furthest point reached by Álvaro Fernandes in 1445/46

• 1446 - Madeira caravel of Álvaro Fernandes (also called António Fernandes) skips Arguin and sails straight south to Senegal. Fernandes doubles Cape Vert and anchors at Gorée island (Bezeguiche), where Fernandes is said to have carved Prince Henry's motto, Talent de bien faire on a tree trunk . A couple of native canoes from the mainland (probably Wolof) paddle out to the idling caravel at Gorée. The meeting goes well at first. Lured by the pacific encounter, five more canoes decide to paddle out to the ship. But Álvaro Fernandes decides to set up an ambush, and prepares a launch with armed men to attack the approaching canoes. Surprised, the Wolof canoes frantically turn around back to the mainland, several of the paddlers falling overboard in the process. With some difficulty, Fernandes's launch manages to fish two of the native men out in the water, but the rest swim safely to shore. The element of surprise gone, Fernandes sees little point in remaining in the vicinity, and sets sail out of the bay with his two captives. He proceeds south along the Petite Côte a little way, reaching an imposing cliff rock he calls the Cabo dos Mastos (Cape Naze) (on account of a set of dry, naked tree trunks, which resemble a cluster of ship's masts).. He tries to ambush a small hunting party near there, but they manage to escape. This is the furthest point reached by Álvaro Fernandes, who subsequently sets sail back to Portugal. [Cabo dos Mastos14°32′14″N 17°6′14″W]

• 1446 - Lisbon trio of Dinis Eanes de Grã is the first to arrive in the Arguin banks. Finding Arguin island devastated by the Gonçalves's raid, they conduct a slave raid on the Berber villages on the coast and take some 100 captives, but lose several crewmen in the fighting.

• 1446 - The main body of Lançarote's fleet arrives at Arguin island, where they find the idling trio of Dinis Eanes de Grã. Grã joins Lançarote's fleet in attacking Arguin again, then sailing down to devastate Tidra island and Serenni peninsula. Although the fighting is heavier, an additional 66 Berbers are taken captive. Grã's Lisbon trio leaves back for Portugal after the Tider raid, the Lagos fleet lingering behind hoping to find more captives. But the slave raids have taken their toll, the Berber settlements around the Arguin banks are deserted and ship supplies are beginning to run short. Lançarote splits his fleet - one group to return with Soeiro da Costa back to Lagos, another squadron to accompany him to the Terra dos Negros (Senegal).

• 1446 - Soeiro da Costa leads a returning squadron of four or five caravels from Arguin back to Lagos. Dissatisfied with the profit of this trip, Costa makes a quick stop at Cape Blanc, where he captures a Berber woman he believes he can ransom at Arguin for more slaves. Costa sends the remaining ships on by themselves, while he himself returns to the Arguin banks to seek out a ransom. But it turns out fruitless and Soeiro da Costa eventually returns to Lagos by himself.

• 1446 - In the meantime, the rest of the returning squadron from Tider (three or four caravels) come across João de Castilha's ship, still on its outward leg. They inform him of the destruction and desertion of the Arguin banks, so Castilha decides to return home with them. The squadron stop by the Canary Islands, where they induce some local Guanche chieftans of La Gomera to join in a raid on the neighboring rival island of La Palma. Chasing the Guanche natives over the cliffs of La Palma (in which several Portuguese raiders fall to their deaths), they manage to take some 17 captives. But finding that insufficient, the Portuguese captains decide to double-cross their allies and raid La Gomera itself for slaves, taking an additional 21 captives. This action infuriates Henry (who had some sort of prior treaty with the La Gomera chieftans), and the Portuguese captains are duly punished upon arrival.

• 1446 - Lançarote's squadron arrives at Barbary Point at the mouth of the Senegal River (Çanagà). He dispatches Estêvão Afonso (a passenger in Vicente Dias's ship) in a launch to explore the mouth of the river. At one point, venturing on the river's bank, Afonso abducts two children from a local Wolof woodsman's hut, only to be chased down and furiously beaten by their father. This puts an abrupt end to the river exploration. The launch returns back to the waiting caravels.

• 1446 - Deciding to press on south, Lançarote dispatches one of the caravels (Rodrigues Eanes de Travassos) back to Lagos, and proceeds south with his remaining five ships. Doubling Cape Verde, Lançarote's squadron make a landing at Gorée island (Bezeguiche) to hunt some goats, and find the marker left a few weeks earlier by Álvaro Fernandes. Lançarote dispatches Gomes Pires on a launch to the mainland to open contact with the local Wolof chieftans, but his approach is prevented by a hail of arrows (evidently, the locals did not quickly forget Álvaro Fernandes's actions shortly before). Determined to avenge the hostile reception, Lançarote orders the caravels to prepare a raid on the Wolof villages, but a sudden storm forces them out of Bezeguiche Bay. The ships are scattered. Lançarote and two other caravels (Álvaro de Freitas and Vicente Dias), remain together and proceed once more to Tidra island (on the Arguin banks), where they take another 59 captives, before returning to Portugal. The two other remaining caravels, Lourenço Dias and Gomes Pires, make their way home by themselves (Pires making a brief stop in Cape Blanc, where he buys some slaves and seal pelts from some Berber traders).

• 1446 - Dinis Dias/Fernandes meets the disoriented Lagos fusta of Palançano on the outward leg, and both proceed together towards Arguin. Finding Arguin island deserted, they decide to head south to Senegal (which Dinis knows well enough). On the way, they make a stop probably around Cabo Tira (Cape Timris), where they go ashore to find a settlement. They find no village, but manage to take 9 passing Berbers captive. At this point, Palançano's fusta is thrown by the waves against some coastal rocks and shattered, forcing the wrecked crew and captives to pile into Dinis Dias's caravel. Dias proceeds to cruise down to Cape Verde, and tries to land on the mainland shore, but are dissuaded by a Wolof armed force gathered on the beach. It is around this time that Dinis Dias meets up with the lost ship of Rodrigo Eanes Travassos Running out of supplies, Dinis Dias sets sail back north to Cape Timris, hoping to capture Berbers that might have since ventured out to salvage the wreck of the fusta. They send a party ashore there, but are lured to follow a trail into some cliffs and ambushed by a strong Berber party, which they manage to fend off in a furious fight (but fail to take any captives). Running out of supplies, they return to Portugal. [Cape Mirick/Timris 19°22′54″N 16°32′21″W]

1987 Portuguese escudo coin depicting Nuno Tristão's journey to the Gambia River (sic) in 1446

• Late 1446 (or 1447) - Not long after Álvaro Fernandes returns, Henry dispatches his favorite captain Nuno Tristão on a caravel, with instructions to sail beyond the Cabo dos Mastos (Fernandes' last point). It is uncertain how far Nuno Tristão actually sailed. Tradition states he sailed as far as Rio do Nuno (Nunez River, modern Guinea), an enormous leap beyond the Cabo dos Mastos. As a result, Nuno Tristão is sometimes credited as the 'dicoverer' of Guinea. But modern historians suggest Tristão only reached as far as Rio de Barbacins (Saloum River) or Rio de Lago (Diombos River) (both still in Senegal, just a few miles below Cabo dos Mastos), or, more generously, the Gambia River. Reaching the mouth of the river, Nuno Tristão takes 22 men on a launch to search for a settlement to raid upriver. They stumble into an ambush of some thirteen native canoes, with about 80 armed men, apparently awaiting them (probably Mandinka or Niominka)). The canoes feign flight, prompting Tristão to set out after them, but it is a trap,and the Portuguese launch is quickly surrounded. Nuno Tristão and the rest of the crew is killed on the spot (Zurara says two managed to escape). The caravel, with only the clerk Aires Tinoco and four grumetes (ship boys), none of which knew anything of navigation, lift anchor and somehow make their way back to Lagos with news of the disaster. (although one account says the native canoes seized the caravel as well) [Rio de Barbacins (Saloum) 13°57′47″N 16°45′10″W, Rio de Lago (Diombos) 13°47′57″N 16°36′19″W]

1447

1447 (or 1446) - Gomes Pires

Merda

• 1445 - Venetian captain Alvise Cadamosto, on a visit to the Algarve, is hired on the spot by Henry the Navigator. Henry assigns Cadamosto a new caravel, co-captained or piloted by Vicente Dias de Lagos. They sail south and anchor somewhere on the Grande Côte (probably in Yoff Bay), where they meet a certain local Wolof king 'Budomel'. Cadamosto visits his home settlement, which he calls 'Palma do Budomel' (probably Yoff, north of Dakar) and enters into lengthy negotiations, trading some of his horses for slaves and gold dust. They are still there in November, 1445, when they are chanced upon by two of Henry's caravels, one under the command of the Genoese captain António de Noli, the other by an unknown captain. Cadamosto, Noli and a third captain (name unknown).

While Cadamosto is staying in the king's village, Dias sails up to the mouth of the Senegal, to await Cadamosto (who promised to reach there by land). While lingering there, Dias nstructs Dias to sail up to the mouth of the Senegal River, and await him there. does a brisk trade nd Vicente Dias de Lagos a new

picked up by Antão Gonçalves on a visit to the Algarve in 1444 and hired on the spot by Henry the Navigator.  Henry mounts a caravel nova for Alvise Cadamosto, captained by Vicente Dias de Lagos, which leaves for Madeira in March. It proceeds to weave through the Canaries to Cape Blanc, anchoring for a couple of days, before heading south.  He sails past the Senegal River, and briefly anchors south of it in a place ruled by a certain local ruler Badumel (which he pomptly labels Palma do Badumel, prob. Yoff beach, on the north side of the Cape)  Cadamosto does a brisk trade with some of the horses for slaves. While staying there, Cadamosto instructs Dias to sail back up and meet him at the mouth of the Senegal river, which he intends to reach overland for sake of exploration. of  Double Cape Verde and reach the Gambia River. [Annaes] 

Portuguese possessions in Morocco (1415-1769).

Gonçalo Velho uses degredados and foreign adventurers to colonize.

at Povoação Velha on São Miguel Island.

Map of Portuguese discoveries in 15th-16th C.

Part of the Saint Vincent Panels by Nuno Gonçalves, thought to depict the brothers Ferdinand the Saint (top), John of Reguengos (left), Peter of Coimbra (right) and Henry the Navigator (bottom)

=

• 1420—The same sailors and Bartolomeu Perestrelo discovered the island of Madeira, which at once began to be colonized.

• 1422—Cape Nao, the limit of Moorish navigation is passed as the African Coast is mapped.

• 1427—Diogo de Silves discovered the Azores, which was colonized in 1431 by Gonçalo Velho Cabral.

• 1434—Gil Eanes sailed round Cape Bojador, thus destroying the legends of the ‘Dark Sea’.

• 1434—the 32 point compass-card replaces the 12 points used until then.

• 1435—Gil Eanes and Afonso Gonçalves Baldaia discovered Garnet Bay (Angra dos Ruivos) and the latter reached the Gold River (Rio de Ouro).

• 1441—Nuno Tristão reached Cape White.

• 1443—Nuno Tristão penetrated the Arguim Gulf. Prince Pedro granted Henry the Navigator the monopoly of navigation, war and trade in the lands south of Cape Bojador.

• 1444—Dinis Dias reached Cape Green (Cabo Verde).

• 1445—Álvaro Fernandes sailed beyond Cabo Verde and reached Cabo dos Mastros (Cape Red)

• 1446—Alvaro Fernandes reached the northern Part of Portuguese Guinea

• 1452—Diogo de Teive discovers the Islands of Flores and Corvo.

• 1455-Papal bull Romanus Pontifex confirmed the Portuguese explorations and declares that all lands and waters south of Bojador and cape Non (Cape Chaunar) belong to the kings of Portugal.

• 1458—Luis Cadamosto discovers the first Cape Verde Islands.

• 1460—Death of Prince Henry, the Navigator. His systematic mapping of the Atlantic,reached 8º N on the African Coast and 40º W in the Atlantic (Sargasso Sea) in his lifetime.

• 1461—Diogo Gomes and António Noli discovered more of the Cape Verde Islands.

• 1461—Diogo Afonso discovered the western islands of the Cabo Verde group.

• 1471—João de Santarém and Pedro Escobar crossed the Equator. The southern hemisphere was discovered and the sailors began to be guided by a new constellation, the Southern Cross. The discovery of the islands of São Tome and Principe is also attributed to these same sailors.

• 1472—João Vaz Corte-Real and Álvaro Martins Homem reached the Land of Cod, now called Newfoundland.

• 1479—Treaty of Alcáçovas establishes Portuguese control of the Azores, Guinea, ElMina, Madeira and Cape Verde Islands and Castilian control of the Canary Islands.

• 1482—Diogo Cão reached the estuary of the Zaire (Congo) and placed a landmark there. Explored 150 km upriver to the Ielala Falls.

• 1484—Diogo Cão reached Walvis Bay, south of Namibia.

• 1487—Afonso de Paiva and Pero da Covilhã traveled overland from Lisbon in search of the Kingdom of Prester John. (Ethiopia)

• 1488—Bartolomeu Dias, crowning 50 years of effort and methodical expeditions, rounded the Cape of Good Hope and entered the Indian Ocean. They had found the "Flat Mountain" of Ptolemy's Geography.

• 1489/92—South Atlantic Voyages to map the winds

• 1490—Columbus leaves for Spain after his father-in-law's death.

• 1492—First exploration of the Indian Ocean.

• 1494—The Treaty of Tordesillas between Portugal and Spain divided the world into two parts, Spain claiming all non-Christian lands west of a north-south line 370 leagues west of the Azores, Portugal claiming all non-Christian lands east of that line.

• 1495—Voyage of João Fernandes, the Farmer, and Pedro Barcelos to Greenland. During their voyage they discovered the land to which they gave the name of Labrador (lavrador, farmer)

• 1494—First boats fitted with cannon doors and topsails.

• 1498—Vasco da Gama led the first fleet around Africa to India, arriving in Calicut.

• 1498—Duarte Pacheco Pereira explores the South Atlantic and the South American Coast North of the Amazon River.

• 1500—Pedro Álvares Cabral discovered Brazil on his way to India.

• 1500—Gaspar Corte-Real made his first voyage to Newfoundland, formerly known as Terras Corte-Real.

• 1500—Diogo Dias discovered an island they named after St Lawrence after the saint on whose feast day they had first sighted the island later known as Madagascar

• 1502— Returning from India, Vasco da Gama discovers the Amirante Islands (Seychelles).

• 1502—Miguel Corte-Real set out for New England in search of his brother, Gaspar. João da Nova discovered Ascension Island. Fernão de Noronha discovered the island which still bears his name.

• 1503—On his return from the East, Estevão da Gama discovered Saint Helena Island.

• 1505—Gonçalo Álvares in the fleet of the first viceroy sailed south in the Atlantic to were "water and even wine froze" discovering an island named after him, modern Gough Island

• 1505—Lourenço de Almeida made the first Portuguese voyage to Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and established a settlement there.

• 1506—Tristão da Cunha discovered the island that bears his name. Portuguese sailors landed on Madagascar.

• 1509—The Bay of Bengal crossed by Diogo Lopes de Sequeira. On the crossing he also reached Malacca.

• 1511— Duarte Fernandes is the first European to visit the Kingdom of Siam (Thailand), sent by Afonso de Albuquerque after the conquest of Malaca.

• 1512— António de Abreu discovered Timor island and reached Banda Islands, Ambon Island and Seram. Francisco Serrão reached the Moluccas.

• 1512—Pedro Mascarenhas discover the island of Diego Garcia, he also encountered the Mauritius, although he may not have been the first to do so; expeditions by Diogo Dias and Afonso de Albuquerque in 1507 may have encountered the islands. In 1528 Diogo Rodrigues named the islands of Réunion, Mauritius, and Rodrigues the Mascarene Islands, after Mascarenhas.

• 1513—The first trading ship to touch the coasts of China, under Jorge Álvares and Rafael Perestrello later in the same year.

• 1517—Fernão Pires de Andrade and Tomé Pires were chosen by Manuel I of Portugal to sail to China to formally open relations between the Portuguese Empire and the Ming Dynasty during the reign of the Zhengde Emperor.

• 1526—Discovery of New Guinea; Jorge de Meneses

• 1528—Diogo Rodrigues explores the Mascarene islands, that he names after his countryman Pedro Mascarenhas, he explored and named the islands of Réunion, Mauritius, and Rodrigues

• 1529—Treaty of Saragossa divides the eastern hemisphere between Spain and Portugal, stipulating that the dividing line should lie 297.5 leagues or 17° east of the Moluccas.

• 1542—Fernão Mendes Pinto, Diogo Zeimoto and Cristovão Borralho reached Japan.

• 1542—The coast of California explored by João Rodrigues Cabrilho.

• 1557—Macau (Macao) given to Portugal by the Emperor of China as a reward for services rendered against the pirates who infested the China Sea.

• 1586—António da Madalena, a Capuchin friar, was one of the first Western visitors to Angkor (now Cambodja).

• 1602—1606—Bento de Góis, a Jesuit missionary, was the first known European to travel overland from India to China, via Afghanistan and the Pamirs.

• 1626—Estêvão Cacella, Jesuit missionary, traveled through the Himalayas and was the first European to enter Bhutan.

• 1636—1638—Pedro Teixeira went from Belém do Pará up the Amazon River and reached Quito, Ecuador, in an expedition of over a thousand men.

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Sources

Primary:

• Monumenta Henricina, (1960-1967), Manuel Lopes de Almeida, Idalino Ferreira da Costa Brochado and Antonio Joaquim Dias Dinis, editors, Coimbra. vol. 1 (1143-1411), vol.2 (1411-1421), [vol.3] (1421-1431), vol. 5 (1431-1436), vol. 6 (1437-1439),vol. 7 (Sep 1439-1443), vol. 8 (1443-45)

Chronicles:

• João de Barros (1552–59) Décadas da Ásia: Dos feitos, que os Portuguezes fizeram no descubrimento, e conquista, dos mares, e terras do Oriente.. Vol. 1 (Dec I, Lib.1-5), Vol. 2 (Dec I, Lib. 6-10), Vol. 3 (Dec II, Lib.1-5), Vol. 4 (Dec II, Lib. 6-10)

• Manuel de Faria e Sousa (1675) ""Empieça la Memoria de todas las Armadas", in Asia Portuguesa, Vol. 3, p.525-61

• Damião de Góis (1567) Chronica do prinçipe Dom Ioam: rei que foi destes regnos segundo do nome, em que summariamente se trattam has cousas sustançiaes que nelles aconteçerão do dia de seu nasçimento atte ho em que el Rei Dom Afonso seu pai faleçeo, 1905 edition, A.J. Gonçálvez Guimarãis ed. Coimbra: Imprensa da Universidade. online

• Gomes Eanes de Zurara (1450) Chronica de el-rei D. João I [1899-1900 edition, Lisbon: Escriptorio.vol. 1, vol. 2, vol. 3

• Gomes Eanes de Zurara (1453) Crónica dos feitos notáveis que se passaram na Conquista da Guiné por mandado do Infante D. Henrique or Chronica do descobrimento e conquista da Guiné. [Trans. 1896-99 by C.R. Beazley and E. Prestage, The Chronicle of the Discovery and Conquest of Guinea, London: Halyut, v.1, v.2

• Gomes Eanes de Zurara (1463) Chronica do Conde D. Pedro de Menezes, first published 1792 in J.F. Correia da Serra, editor, Collecção de livros inéditos de historia portugueza. Lisbon: Academia das Ciências de Lisboa, Vol. 2 online (PDF)

Rutters (by date):

• Duarte Pacheco Pereira (c.1509) Esmeraldo de Situ Orbis, 1892 ed.,R.E. Azevedo Basto, ed., Lisbon: Imprensa Nacional online

• João de Lisboa (c.1519) Livro de Marinharia: tratado da agulha de marear. Roteiros, sondas, e outros conhecimentos relativos á navegação, first pub. 1903, Lisbon: Libanio da Silva. online

• Almada, André Alvares de (1594) Tratado breve dos Rios de Guiné do Cabo-Verde: desde o Rio do Sanagá até aos baixos de Sant' Anna, 1841 edition, edited by D. Köpke, Porto: Typographia Commercial Portuense. online

• Castilho, A.M. de (1866) Descripção e roteiro da costa occidental de Africa, desde o cabo de Espartel até o das Agulhas Lisbon: Impresa Nacional, 2 vols. vol. 1 (Espartel to Palmas) vol. 2 (Palmas to Agulhas)

Secondary:

• Ayres de Sá (1899-1900) Frei Gonçalo Velho, Lisbon: Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa, v.1, v.2

• Beazley, C.R. (1897–1906) The Dawn of Modern Geography. London. vol. 1 (-900), vol.2 (900-1260) vol. 3 (1260–1420)

• Beazley, C. (1899) Raymond "Introduction" in C.R. Beazley and E. Prestage, 1898–99, The Chronicle of the Discovery and Conquest of Guinea, London: Halyut. v.2

• Campbell, T. (1987) "Portolan Charts from the Late Thirteen Century to 1500" in J. B. Harley and D. Woodward, editors, The History of Cartography, Volume 1: Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient and Medieval Europe and the Mediterranean. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

• Cortesão, Armando (1931) "Subsídios para a história do Descobrimento de Cabo Verde e Guiné", Boletim da Agencia Geral das Colonias, No. 75. As reprinted in 1975, Esparsos, vol. 1, Coimbra. online

• Cruz, Abel dos Santos (2006) "A Guerra naval no Mediterrâneo Atlântico",1415-1437: relatos do corso português no texto literário de Gomes Eanes de Zurara", Estudos em homenagem ao Professor Doutor José Marques, Porto: Faculdade de Letras da Universidade do Porto. p.35-58

• Diffie, B.W. (1960) Prelude to Empire: Portugal Overseas before Henry the Navigator, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

• Diffie, Bailey W., and George D. Winius (1977) Foundations of the Portuguese empire, 1415-1580 Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press

• Gago Coutinho, C.V. (1951-52) A Náutica dos Descobrimentos: os descobrimentos maritimos vistos por um navegador, (2nd edition, 1969, ed. by M. Braz), 2 vols., Lisbon: Agencia Geral do Ultramar.

• Julien, Charles-André, Histoire de l'Afrique du Nord, des origines à 1830, édition originale 1931, réédition Payot, Paris, 1961

• Pereira, J.A. Rodrigues (2009) Grandes Batalhas Navais Portuguesas: Os combates que marcaram a historia de Portugal Lisbon: Esfera dos Livros.

• Quintella, Ignaco da Costa (1839–40) Annaes da Marinha Portugueza, 2 vols, Lisbon: Academia Real das Sciencias. vol. 1

• Russell, P.E. (2001) Prince Henry 'the Navigator': a life New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press.

• Russell-Wood, A.J.R. (1998) The Portuguese Empire 1415–1808: A world on the move. Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press.

• Saraiva, D. Francisco S. Luis (1841) Indice chronologico das navegações, viagens, descobrimentos dos Portuguezes nos paizes ultramarinos, desde o principio do Seculo XV. Lisbon: Imprensa Nacional. online

• Shillington, V.M. and A.B. Wallis Chapman (1907) The Commercial relations of England and Portugal

• Teixera da Mota, Avelino (1946) "A descoberta da Guiné", Boletim cultural da Guiné Portuguesa, Vol. 1. Part 1 in No. 1 (Jan), p.11-68, Pt. 2 in No. 2 (Apr), p.273-326; Pt. 3 in No. 3 (Jul), p.457-509.