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Motor development

Abilities for physical movement change through childhood from the largely reflexive (unlearned, involuntary) movement patterns of the young infant to the highly skilled voluntary movements characteristic of later childhood and adolescence.

Speed and pattern of development

The speed of motor development is rapid in early life, as many of the reflexes of the newborn alter or disappear within the first year, and slows later. Like physical growth, motor development shows predictable patterns of cephalocaudal (head to foot) and proximodistal (torso to extremities) development, with movements at the head and in the more central areas coming under control before those of the lower part of the body or the hands and feet. Types of movement develop in stage-like sequences;^{[citation needed]} for example, locomotion at 6–8 months involves creeping on all fours, then proceeds to pulling to stand, "cruising" while holding on to an object, walking while holding an adult's hand, and finally walking independently.^{[citation needed]} Older children continue the sequence by walking sideways or backward, galloping, hopping, skipping with one foot and walking with the other, and finally skipping.^{[citation needed]} By middle childhood and adolescence, new motor skills are acquired by instruction or observation rather than in a predictable sequence.^[1]

Mechanisms of motor development

The mechanisms involved in motor development involve some genetic components that determine the physical size of body parts at a given age, as well as aspects of muscle and bone strength.^{[citation needed]} Nutrition and exercise also determine strength and therefore the ease and accuracy with which a body part can be moved.^[1] Flexibility is also impacted by nutrition and exercise as well. <1)^[2] It has also been shown that the frontal lobe develops posterio-anteriorally (from back to front). This is significant in motor development because the hind portion of the frontal lobe is known to control motor functions. This form of development is known as "Portional Development" and explains why motor functions develop relatively quickly during normal childhood development, while logic, which is controlled by the middle and front portions of the frontal lobe, usually will not develop until late childhood and early adolescence.^[3] Opportunities to carry out movements help establish the abilities to flex (move toward the trunk) and extend body parts, both capacities are necessary for good motor ability. Skilled voluntary movements such as passing objects from hand to hand <2) ^[4] develop as a result of practice and learning.^[1]

Individual differences

Normal individual differences in motor ability are common and depend in part on the child's weight and build. However, after the infant period, normal individual differences are strongly affected by opportunities to practice, observe, and be instructed on specific movements. Atypical motor development such as persistent primitive reflexes beyond 4-6 months ^[5] may be an indication of developmental delays or problems such as autism, cerebral palsy, or down syndrome .^[1] ^[6]

Population differences

There are some population differences in motor development, with girls showing some advantages in small muscle usage, including articulation of sounds with lips and tongue.^{[citation needed]} Ethnic differences in reflex movements of newborn infants have been reported, suggesting that some biological factor is at work.^{[citation needed]} Cultural differences may encourage learning of motor skills like using the left hand only for sanitary purposes and the right hand for all other uses, producing a population difference.^{[citation needed]} Cultural factors are also seen at work in practiced voluntary movements such as the use of the foot to dribble a soccer ball or the hand to dribble a basketball.^[1]

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Cite error: The named reference Patterson, 2008 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ Bell, S. (11, June 14). Flexibility diets. Retrieved from http://www.livestrong.com/article/307952-flexibility-diets/>
^ Soska, K. C., Adolph, K. E., & Johnson, S. P. (2010). Systems in Development: Motor Skill Acquisition Facilitates Three-Dimensional Object Completion. Developmental Psychology
^ McCall, M. D., & Greeley, J. C. (2005). Early gross motor skills intervention ideas. Retrieved from http://www.usdb.org/deafblind/db/CIT Web Lessons/Motor Development and Movement/motordevelopmentGP_print.html>
^ <McCall, M. D., & Greeley, J. C. (2005). Early gross motor skills intervention ideas. Retrieved from http://www.usdb.org/deafblind/db/CIT Web Lessons/Motor Development and Movement/motordevelopmentGP_print.html>
^ 2) McCall, M. D., & Greeley, J. C. (2005). Early gross motor skills intervention ideas. Retrieved from http://www.usdb.org/deafblind/db/CIT Web Lessons/Motor Development and Movement/motordevelopmentGP_print.html

[Patterson,_2008-1] Cite error: The named reference Patterson, 2008 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

[2] Bell, S. (11, June 14). Flexibility diets. Retrieved from http://www.livestrong.com/article/307952-flexibility-diets/>

[3] Soska, K. C., Adolph, K. E., & Johnson, S. P. (2010). Systems in Development: Motor Skill Acquisition Facilitates Three-Dimensional Object Completion. Developmental Psychology

[4] McCall, M. D., & Greeley, J. C. (2005). Early gross motor skills intervention ideas. Retrieved from http://www.usdb.org/deafblind/db/CIT Web Lessons/Motor Development and Movement/motordevelopmentGP_print.html>

[5] <McCall, M. D., & Greeley, J. C. (2005). Early gross motor skills intervention ideas. Retrieved from http://www.usdb.org/deafblind/db/CIT Web Lessons/Motor Development and Movement/motordevelopmentGP_print.html>

[6] 2) McCall, M. D., & Greeley, J. C. (2005). Early gross motor skills intervention ideas. Retrieved from http://www.usdb.org/deafblind/db/CIT Web Lessons/Motor Development and Movement/motordevelopmentGP_print.html

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