User:Uocpos

A General Introduction to Daoism in China Daoism is an indigenous traditional religion of China. It is generally believed that Daoist organizations were formally established 1,900 years ago by Celestial Master Zhang Daoling during the reign (AD 126-144) of Emperor Shundi of the Eastern Han Dynasty. However, the original sources of Daoist doctrines can be traced back to the Pre-Qin period(4000-221BC). Thus there is the common reference to the “Three Ancestors” that alludes to the Yellow Emperor, Lao Zi and Celestial Master Zhang. The ideological system of Daoism covers a wide range of contents. Generally speaking, it evolved into a religious culture by basing itself on ancient religious beliefs in China around the worship of heaven and ancestors, as well as Daoist theories and beliefs regarding immortality arising during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. It has also absorbed ethical ideas from Confucianism and folk religious customs.

The core of Daoism is, of course, Dao ( the Way), which is beyond description. It is said that Dao is the origin of the universe, the basis of all existing things, the law governing their development and change, and the ultimate god of Daoism. The concept of Virtue (De) is closely related to Dao. Dao De Jing relates,“All respect Dao yet value Virtue.” Virtue has different connotations. One common explanation is that Virtue is the specific manifestation of Dao in specific things. Daoists regard Dao and Virtue as the general principles of their beliefs and behavior. They should not only cultivate Dao but also accumulate Virtue. Therefore, both Dao and Virtue serve as the basis of Daoist doctrines. Derived from the foundation of Dao and Virtue are a whole set of principles, including non-action,non-passion and non-desire, non-struggle, and the pursuit of simplicity and truth.

Daoists believe in both Dao as well as in deities and immortals.“Gods”in Daoism refer to the Celestial Worthy of Primordial Beginning, the Celestial Worthy of Numinous Treasure and the Celestial Worthy of the Way and Its Virtue, the Jade Emperor and the Great Emperor of Zhenwu, who were born before heaven and earth separated; while “immortals”refer to humans who were born after heaven and earth separated and transformed into deities, becoming immortals through cultivating Dao.Among them are Celestial Master Zhang and Lǖ Chunyang. From the Daoist perspective, both gods and immortals are symbols of Dao. There exists a hierarchy of gods and immortals in Daoism. At the top of the hierarchy are the gods of the highest ranks the Celestial Worthy of Primordial Beginning, the Celestial Worthy of Numinous Treasure and the Celestial Worthy of the Way and Its Virtue, who are the embodiment of Dao or may be said to be the Dao itself. Below them are the gods of the lower ranks, who are entrusted with responsibilities according to their attainments in Dao and Virtue. The highest among them is the Jade Emperor, followed by the four major deities and other celestial beings. The Jade Emperor is the highest ruler of the universe. Different deities and immortals have different responsibilities. Among the most popularly known are the celestial beings in charge of wind, rain, thunder, lightning, water and fire, the God of Wealth, the Kitchen God, the God of the Town and the God of the Land. Daoism believes that the universe contains 36 heavens above and 36 hells below. The highest heaven is called Da-luo Heaven. The next three heavens are the Realm of Absolute Purity; the four heavens after that are the Four Brahmas; while the rest of the 28 heavens include the Immaterial Realm (four heavens), the Material Realm (18 heavens), and the Realm of Desire (six heavens).

Da-luo Heaven is wherein dwells the Celestial Worthy of Primordial Beginning, the Celestial Worthy of Numinous Treasure and the Celestial Worthy of the Way and Its Virtue; the Realm of Absolute Purity is the abode of nine grades of saints, realized beings and immortals. Those in the Four Brahmas are free of the pain of life and death; those in the Immaterial Realm enjoy longevity but are not free from the pain of life and death; while the people in the Realm of Desire experience all manner of desire as well as pain.

The 36 hells are the netherworld where the souls of the deceased dwell. Daoism believes that the deceased will be judged by the Ten Kings of the netherworld. A benevolent person will be reincarnated, while an evil-doer will be subject to punishment in these hells. Daoism also believes that, among the famous mountains of the earth, there are 10 Big Daoist Caves,36 Small Daoist Caves and 72 Promised Lands, which serve as the abodes of immortals. Among the four seas, there are 10 continents and three islands, where immortals take rest and the divine grass grows. It is believed that if one eats this grass, one will become immortal. In Chinese history, the First Emperor of the Qin Dynasty and Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty sent people to look for these fairy islands off the sea in hopes of obtaining those elixirs.

The highest ideal of a Daoist is to acquire immortality. To achieve this goal, one must practice Daoism both inside and outside one's physical existence. Inner practice involves physical and breathing exercises,concentrated contemplation, and the taking of elixirs. Later, this type of practice gradually came down to refining the interior elixirs ( neidan ). The basic principle of this practice is still to cultivate the self both spiritually and physically. External practice involves doing good deeds and helping others so as to acquire more merit and virtue. If one succeeds in both aspects, one could enter the world of immortals. The books that record Daoist doctrines are referred to as the Daoist scriptures. There were different kinds of Daoist scriptures compiled at different moments in history, all under the title of the Daoist Canon. The earliest Daoist Canon appeared during the Tang Dynasty, followed by other editions compiled during the Song, Jin, Yuan and Ming dynasties. Extant today are two editions respectively compiled during the reign of Zhengtong and the reign of Wangli of the Ming Dynasty, hence the names: Zhengtong Daoist Canon and Wanli Supplementary Daoist Canon . The decree from a Yuan-dynasty emperor to burn Daoist Canon resulted in the loss of a great number of Daoist doctrines. Today, the Daoist Association of China is making efforts to recompile an anthology of Daoist doctrines, entitled China's Daoist Canon. The Dao De Jing by Lao Zi is Daoism's principal and most important canon. Other canons include Book of Secret Revelations , Book of Purity and Quietness , Book of the Lower Elixir Field , Book of Divine Deliverance, and Can Tong Qi. Many schools of Daoism were formed throughout history. During the Han Dynasty, there arose Tianshi Daoism and Taiping Daoism; during the Wei and Jin Period, there were the Shangqing Sect, the Lingbao Sect, and the Sanhuang Sect; the Song, Jin and Yuan dynasties saw Quanzhen Daoism, Taiyi Daoism, Zhenda Daoism, and Jinming Daoism. Historical fusion brought many different sects together, from which two important sects, the Zhengyi Sect (evolved from Tianshi Daoism) and Quanzhen Daoism (founded by Wang Chongyang), finally developed. Today's Daoist followers belong to either of these two sects. The Zhengyi Sect is popular mainly in Jiangxi, Jiangsu, Shanghai and Fujian provinces, while Quanzhen Daoism flourishes in other parts of China. There is no difference in basic beliefs between the two sects, with the only differences lying in their norms and regulations. Quanzhen Daoism, for example, requires its followers to be vegetarians, remain single and live in temples, while the Zhengyi Sect has no such regulations at all. Sites for Daoist activities are called Daoist Palaces ( gong ) or temples ( guan ). Daoists in the early days preferred to build their temples in wild but serene mountains and forests. With the spread of Daoism, more and more temples were built in urban areas. Each of them came to enshrine a great number of statues of deities and immortals. Daoists lived in the temples, practicing Dao and conducting sacred rites. Ordinary believers frequented these places to burn joss sticks and worship the gods. These temples were open to visitors, too. On the birthdays of the main gods and immortals, grand services were held in the temples, attracting a steady flow of people who came to offer incense sticks and to pray for blessings. Some temples also sponsored fairs, which brought together the worship of gods with recreational and trading activities, to produce lively festivities. Daoism, during its time-honored history of development, has exerted far-reaching influences on China's philosophy, literature, arts, medicine and science. What merits special attention is its great contribution to ancient Chinese medicine and chemistry. A folk saying goes, “Nine out of 10 Daoists are doctors.” Daoists' pursuit of longevity and health resulted in many Daoists excelling in medicine. Some renowned senior Daoists, like Ge Hong of the Jin Dynasty, Dao Hongjing of the Southern and Northern Dynasties and Sun Simiao of the Tang Dynasty, were all well-known doctors and pharmacists. Daoists of early times attached great importance to minerals, mainly lead, mercury, sulfur, gold, and silver, from which they believed elixirs could be made. They had hoped that these elixirs could free them from the terrors of death.During this process they discovered certain chemical phenomena, which they recorded. Their records thus became the most valuable documents in ancient Chinese chemistry. Joseph Needham, historian of science, wrote in his Science and Civilization in China : “Many of the most attractive elements of the Chinese character derive from Daoism. China without Daoism would be a tree of which some of its deepest roots had perished.”What is worth mentioning here is that gunpowder, one of China's four great inventions, was actually invented by Daoists during their attempts to create elixirs. Daoist culture has long permeated the everyday life of ordinary Chinese people since it exerted great influences on social customs in ancient China and on the shaping of national consciousness. The venerated Lu Xun, the great Chinese writer, once said, “China is rooted in Daoism.”Daoism has played an important role in the making of traditional Chinese culture. To know it is to possess a key to a better understanding of traditional Chinese culture. Today, as one of the five major religions (Daoism, Buddhism, Islam, Protestantism, and Roman Catholicism) in China, Daoism has a great number of followers. There are more than 1,600 temples and more than 25,000 Daoist priests of the Quanzhen Daoism and the Zhengyi Sect. The number of ordinary believers is almost impossible to assess. Daoism has also found its way to other parts of the world. Daoist methods of keeping fit and healthy,as well as the Daoist concept of harmonious coexistence between humans and nature, have claimed a great deal of attention. Daoism is attracting the interest of an increasing number of people worldwide. The emblem of Daoism is the Taiji symbol, or diagram of the cosmological scheme, comprised of a circle with an S-shaped line dividing the white ( yang ) and black ( yin ) halves. [←翻译公司[1]