User:Ulgen ayranci/Tophane i Amire

Tophane-i Âmire Building

The Tophane-i Amire building was established in the 15th century in the Metopon region, where the Ste. Claire and Aya Photini churches were located during the Byzantine period. The cannon foundry center, founded by Sultan Mehmed II after the conquest, was where the military cannons used by the Ottoman army and navy were produced. The Tophane-i Amire building, which underwent various renovations until 1992, was transferred to Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University in that year. Today, the historical military building, now serving as the Tophane-i Amire Culture and Art Center under Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University, features three separate exhibition halls: Tophane-i Amire Beş Kubbe (Five Domes), Tophane-i Amire Tek Kubbe (Single Dome), and Tophane-i Amire Sarnıçlar (Cisterns). These spaces host domestic and international exhibitions.

Tophane Building

In the Ottoman Empire, cannons were produced in places called foundries. These buildings were high-walled, domed, made of masonry, and had a large number of chimneys. Additionally, they featured large pits dug into the ground for cannon casting, pipes used to transport molten material, and water cisterns to mitigate the risk of fires during the casting process. It is known that barrels filled with honey were kept ready in the Tophane-i Amire building in Istanbul to prevent fires that could be caused by the large flames resulting from cannon casting.

The word "top" in Turkish, which has various meanings, refers to all heavy firearms that shoot iron or stone projectiles. In the Divan-ı Lügati‘t-Türk, the tüfek (rifle), described as a weapon where thick tree trunks are hollowed out and filled with gunpowder to shoot stone projectiles, also refers to a cannon. In the Kamus-ı Türkî, a cannon is defined as "a well-known large weapon filled with gunpowder and shot," while the Resimli Kamus-ı Osmanî describes it as "a fiery tool used to shoot projectiles with the propulsive force of gunpowder gases.

In the Ottoman Empire, the term "tophane" was used for an organized establishment where cannons were cast and mounted, and sometimes also referred to places like gunpowder magazines, cannonball depots, and cannon storage facilities. The term was even used for places where only cannonballs were cast or made. For instance, Lütfi Pasha referred to the Güngörmez Church Gunpowder Magazine, which exploded due to a lightning strike on 22 Sha'ban 895 (11 July 1489), as a "tophane." Because places used for the mentioned purposes were called tophane, the area where such places were located also became known as the Tophane neighborhood. For example, in Bursa, the neighborhood where the Ramadan cannon was kept and fired is called the Tophane neighborhood.

Tophâne Buildings Outside of Istanbul

It is estimated that before the conquest of Istanbul, the Ottoman Empire had tophane buildings in two places: Bursa and Edirne. After the conquest of Istanbul, tophane buildings were established in many other places in addition to Bursa and Edirne. These tophane buildings established after the Tophane-i Amire founded by Fatih Sultan Mehmet in Istanbul include those in Avlonya, Semendire, Novaberda, İşkodra, Belgrad, Budin, Erzurum, Egypt, Basra, Birecik, Hasköy, and Van. Alongside these existing tophane buildings, the Ottomans also set up mobile tophane units in newly conquered territories and cast cannons there.

Before the conquest of Istanbul, it is estimated that the Ottomans had tophane buildings in two places: one in Bursa and the other in Edirne. Additionally, sources mention that large cannons for the sieges of fortresses located in rugged terrain were cast in mobile tophane units built near the battlefield. This mobile cannon casting played a significant role in the Ottoman conquests in Europe and the Balkans. Until the Tophane-i Amire became operational, the Ottomans met their cannon needs not only through fixed tophane buildings but also through these mobile units. Furthermore, it is known that captured cannons in wars also played a significant role in the procurement of cannons.

With the continuous expansion of the Ottoman borders, the issue of supplying cannons and other ammunition to border provinces and fortresses located far from the center arose. To address this, the Ottomans established tophane buildings in fortresses and suitable locations on one hand, while on the other hand, they continued the functions of such manufacturing facilities captured from the enemy.

Until the beginning of the 16th century, tophane and similar institutions in Europe and the Balkans continued their activities with their personnel. However, it is understood that this practice began to be abandoned from the early 16th century onwards. With the establishment of Tophane-i Amire in Istanbul and the increasing number of artillerymen and casters trained, the Ottomans' artillerymen and casters began to increase. By the middle of the 16th century, the Ottomans started employing their own masters both in Istanbul and in other tophane buildings instead of foreign masters.

Outside Istanbul, in tophane buildings captured from enemies or established by the Ottomans, there was not a continuous need for production. Therefore, they likely relocated existing workers and masters to the central areas or assigned them to artillery units in fortresses. During cannon casting times, some casters from Tophane-i Amire in Istanbul, along with a sergeant or a steward, were temporarily sent to desired regions to cast cannons as needed. Sometimes, only master casters were sent from Istanbul, while other necessary personnel were selected from the artillerymen in the surrounding forts to assist in the casting process. If artillerymen couldn't be sent from Istanbul, chief artillerymen from major centers were tasked with the cannon casting. The Ottomans also sent casting master artisans from Tophane to Muslim countries that requested assistance with firearms. Once their tasks were completed, these casters would either return to Istanbul or be sent to other places where they were needed. The Ottomans had both economic and military purposes in acting this way.

Osmanlılar, İstanbul'un fethinden sonra Bursa ve Edirne tophanelerinin yanı sıra birçok yerde tophane kurmuşlardır. Tophane-i Amire'nin kurulmasından sonra bu tophaneler şunlardır: Avlonya, Semendire, Novaberda, İşkodra, Belgrad, Budin, Erzurum, Mısır, Basra, Birecik ve Van Tophaneleri.

Tophâne-i Âmire Building

dome View of the dome from the inside of Tophane-i Âmire Building

Tophane-i Âmire Building

In the Ottoman Empire, the Tophane-i Amire building, commissioned by Fatih Sultan Mehmet and used for cannon casting for many years, expanded its operations over time with additions made by several sultans, thereby maintaining its status as the empire's most important military industrial establishment for a long time.

According to Evliya Çelebi, II. Bayezid, in addition to the Tophane building commissioned by Fatih Sultan Mehmet, built some other buildings in the vicinity to accommodate the artillerymen and casting masters.

During the reign of Kanuni Sultan Süleyman, all the buildings belonging to the Tophane-i Amire complex, which were built by Fatih Sultan Mehmet and II. Bayezid, were demolished, and a new and larger Tophane building was constructed in their place. This structure, built by Kanuni Sultan Süleyman, underwent extensive repairs in 1742, was completely demolished in 1743, and was rebuilt in its current form.

The "kâgir" Tophane was built under the orders of Sultan III. Ahmed by Grand Vizier Damat İbrahim Pasha. With the establishment of the Zeytinburnu Iron Factory (Grande Fabrique) by Ohannes and Boghos Dadian in 1843, the casting of cannons and other weapons began at this factory. By 1850, when the factory started operating at full capacity, the cannon casting at Tophane-i Amire was gradually phased out, and many casting tasks, including cannon casting, began to be carried out at the Zeytinburnu Iron Factory.

Starting from the early 14th century, the casting and production of cannons began to spread rapidly in Europe, and from the second half of the same century, it also started to be seen among the Ottomans. The Ottomans exerted pressure on other states with powerful and effective cannons produced using new technologies.

In the 15th century, the Ottoman Empire's technical superiority and understanding of cannon casting could only be applied in Europe from the middle of the 16th century onwards. The Ottoman Empire, with its economic power, raw material resources, and technical expertise, was far ahead of Europe in cannon casting for many years. However, from the 17th century onwards, the Ottomans gradually began to lose this superiority over Europe.

In the early years of the Ottoman Empire, Europe, especially the papacy, tried to block the entry of various materials used in cannon casting into Ottoman territory to hinder the destructive power of the Ottoman state's military and prevent the expansion of Ottoman borders into Europe's interior. Despite many measures taken, it is known that European merchants sold these materials to the Ottoman Empire through various means due to their desire for profit. This embargo imposed on the Ottoman Empire was applied in reverse due to the Empire's expansion of its borders and its possession of rich resources.

The Ottoman Empire, once subjected to this embargo, also applied it to some enemy states in the East, as well as to European states, and tried to hinder the development of their war capabilities as much as possible.

Artillery in the Ottoman Empire in the 19th Century and Ahmed Süreyya Emin Bey

In the 19th century, it is known that the Ottoman Empire struggled to meet its military material needs, and such materials were mostly procured from outside. During this period, the Tophane-i Amire Directorate fell short of meeting the military industry needs. The army's weapon and ammunition requirements began to be supplied from France, Germany, and later from America. Especially after the Crimean War, during the reorganization of the army in 1869, the increasing need for weapons was being met by German and American companies.

Over time, the Tophane-i Amire building largely lost its functionality, and the foundry in Zeytinburnu gained prominence. Indeed, the world's first rapid-fire field gun was cast in the Zeytinburnu Imperial Factory between 1866 and 1868 by Ahmed Süreyya Emin Bey in exchange for five hundred gold coins.

In the Ottoman Empire, artillery, which began to develop from the 14th century onwards, reached its peak during the empire's rise. However, from the 17th century onwards, it started to stagnate and then decline against European artillery. In the 19th century, there was a significant development in artillery in the Empire, but it did not receive the attention and appreciation it deserved.

Ahmed Süreyya Emin Bey (1848-1923) achieved a remarkable success as the first person in the world to prove that a rapid-fire cannon could be made. This success demonstrates that Ahmed Süreyya Emin Bey had a vision far ahead of his time. In addition to this invention, Ahmed Süreyya Emin Bey learned of the official announcement made by the French Government, which called for technology engineers to research and address the issue of the gas escaping from the barrels of cannons during firing, reducing the speed and force of the projectiles. While these studies were ongoing, he devised a solution to this problem with an invention of his own.

When the falya powder was ignited, gas rapidly escaped from the barrel of the cannon into the interior of the cannon with great force and noise. Additionally, gas leaks from the rear of the cannon were causing the projectiles to lose speed. Ahmed Süreyya Emin Bey succeeded in inventing a new method to prevent gas leaks by devising a cover for the powder chamber, which closed the falya with a firing device and prevented gas leaks from the rear with two types of gas rings, one for steel and the other for bronze cannons. Additionally, he invented a powder chamber cover. However, all of these efforts did not receive the attention they deserved from the state.

Special

General

• Osmanlı Araştırmaları Archived 2016-03-05 at the Wayback Machine

[[Category:Military of the Ottoman Empire]]