User:Sydneymanuel/sandbox

Article Evaluation: Law of Effect

• Material within the article is relevant to the subject, and successfully provides readers with a sufficient knowledge on the topic
• Article provided a real-life example of the how the law of effect is seen in humans (i.e., drug addiction), not just animals, therefore allowing further understanding
• A few citations may be required throughout (i.e., there is no reference in the second paragraph under sub-heading "Definition", regarding S-R association. At least one reference should be provided/paragraph
• Overall, the article is neutral, there are no biased opinions throughout
• After checking a few citations, links seem to be accessible and are relevant/appropriate references for this specific topic
  • The references are up to date
• There were no conversations on the article's talk page
• The article is part of WikiProject Psychology
• Within the project, this article has a C-class rating (quality scale), and is considered to be of low importance (importance scale)

Article Topic - Body Language of Dogs

• I plan to contribute to an existing Wikipedia page focusing on the body language of dogs.
• The existing page contains minimal information about the topic. It references only the tail, the ears, and the head/body.
• I plan to organize the information a little differently, providing much more detail and more scientifically appropriate references.
• My outline is as follows:

Heading: Introduction

• Here I will introduce my topic, defining body language in general, as well as explain why it is so important to be able to appropriately recognize body language in dogs. Following these larger scale topics, I will narrow in on more specific topics that are already very briefly discussed. The current lead in this article is very vague and I plan on expanding the topics mentioned:
  • What can body languages in general indicate
  • How learning can influence the onset of certain postures
  • How humans can interpret the body language of dogs... does previously mentioned learning help with this? (i.e., during training)

Heading: Types of Body Language

• I will describe the different types of body language can be displayed by dogs. Similar to the format of the existing article, I intend to divide this section into areas of the body such that it is easy to understand (as suggested on the Talk page).
• I will provide definitions of movements, as well as what these body motions could mean.

Heading: Emotional States

• I will describe a few examples of different emotional states that can be communicated using body language. This will provide readers with a combination of the above body motions that occur in typical emotional states.

Heading: Types of Cues

• Here I will describe three categories of cues that are displayed by dogs. This will give readers a further understanding of what types of events specific motions can predict.

Bibliography

1. Bloom, T., & Friedman, H. (2013). Classifying dogs' (Canis familiaris) facial expressions from photographs. Behavioural Processes, 96, 1-10.

2. Demirbas, Y., Ozturk, H., Emre, B., Kockaya, M., Ozvardar, T., & Scott, A. (2016). Adults’ Ability to Interpret Canine Body Language during a Dog–Child Interaction. Anthrozoös, 29(4), 581-596. doi: 10.1080/08927936.2016.1228750

3. Gershman, K., Sacks, J., & Wright, J. (1994). Which dogs bite? A case-control study of risk factors. Pediatrics, 93(6), 913

4. Miiamaaria V Kujala, Jan Kujala, Synnöve Carlson, & Riitta Hari. (n.d.). Dog experts' brains distinguish socially relevant body postures similarly in dogs and humans. PLoS ONE, 7(6), E39145. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0039145 

5. Quaranta, Siniscalchi, & Vallortigara. (2007). Asymmetric tail-wagging responses by dogs to different emotive stimuli. Current Biology, 17(6), R199-R201. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2007.02.008

6. Siniscalchi, Lusito, Vallortigara, & Quaranta. (2013). Seeing Left- or Right-Asymmetric Tail Wagging Produces Different Emotional Responses in Dogs. Current Biology, 23(22), 2279-2282. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2013.09.027

7. Valentin, G., Alcaidinho, J., Howard, A., Jackson, M. M., & Starner, T. (2015). Towards a canine-human communication system based on head gestures. In Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Advances in Computer Entertainment Technology - ACE ’15. ACM Press. https://doi.org/10.1145/2832932.2837016

8. Wemelsfelder, F., Hunter, T., Mendl, M., & Lawrence, A. (2001). Assessing the 'whole animal': A free choice profiling approach. Animal Behaviour, 62(2), 209-220. doi: 10.1006/anbe.2001.1741

Significance of Each Reference

1. Demonstrates how humans interpret expressions of dogs

2. Illustration of adults understanding of the body language of a dog, when interacting with a child. Evidence for how misinterpretation can cause aggression and result in bites to children. Also describes different categories of cues (behavioural, holistic, other), evidence that the body language associated with emotional states can vary across different breeds.

3. Additional information regarding the behaviours displayed by aggressive dogs.

4. This article provides evidence about canine posture, and what different postures can mean.

5. Description of tail-wagging that can be seen in dogs.

6. Different directions of tail-wagging can predict various events, or can be used to detect different emotional states.

7. Describes different types of head gestures that are displayed by dogs, and what they mean.

8. Overall assessment of animal body language, and what it can mean.

Body Language of Dogs - Final Article Draft

The body language of dogs is one form of non-verbal communication whereby dogs can express emotions and intentions through bodily movements. This communication can occur between dogs, or during a dog-human interaction. Such movements primarily involve the tail, the ears, and the head/body. Tail-wagging is a common tail movement used by dogs to communicate. Additionally, ear flattening or heightening are typical movements made using the ears. In terms of the head/body, it is of interest to study turning of the head, as well as the overall posture of the dog.

Because dogs communicate differently than humans, it is more difficult for humans to interpret their emotional states. By focusing on the combinations of motions made by dogs, and studying the aftermath of such sequences, humans are able to attribute different emotional states (i.e., contentment, fear, or aggression) as a result of dogs body language.

By properly interpreting the body language of dogs, not only are humans able to decipher what a dog is trying to communicate, but are also able to recognize warning signs prior to an attack, decreasing the number of dog bite occurrences.

It is important to note that the body language under investigation can be divided into three different forms of cues: behavioural, holistic, and other . While behavioural cues focus primarily on studying movements without considering the underlying reasoning behind such movements, holistic cues are ones that occur as a result of either expressing emotions, or communicating intentions.

Understanding the body language of dogs can also aid in optimal obedience training, as observation of body language may reveal when the dog is most motivated and therefore provides a time-frame whereby dogs will learn more readily.

Potential Consequences of Humans Ignoring the Body Language of Dogs

In general, accurately assessing the body language of dogs is quite beneficial as it allows humans to react appropriately to emotions and intentions of the dog. Thus, it fosters successful companionship between the dog owner and pet. Alternatively, ignoring the body language of dogs can pose as a threat for not only humans, but for dogs too.

Properly assessing body language can predict whether or not the dog will bite. Biting occurrences most often involve small children, where bites often affect facial areas. In comparison, bites in adults are less serious, usually involving extremities. Warning signals can be identified through evaluating the body language of dogs accordingly. Oftentimes, people struggle when identifying the body motions of a fearful/anxious dog, incorrectly associating the motions with behaviours of approachable/relaxed dogs. This misinterpretation is most often one that results in the occurrence of biting.

Misreading the warning signs portrayed by dogs can also result in behavioural problems. Euthanasia can be avoided in cases where such behavioural issues occur due to humans ignoring the warning signs expressed by a dog. By accurately interpreting body language, such issues will decrease, thus, decreasing the number of dogs that are euthanized as a result severe behavioural complications, such as biting or attack.

Types of Body Language

Tail

Following "...expressing happiness and friendliness" add: Though indeed tail wagging can express these positive emotions, it can also be an indication of fear, insecurity, the challenging of dominance, or a warning sign that the dog may bite. Considerable effort has been put in to describing this aspect of dog behaviour, whereby it can now be broken down into two conditions: right-biased tail wagging, and left-biased tail wagging. Research has demonstrated that dogs display asymmetric tail wagging as a result of distinctive emotional stimuli.

Right-biased Tail Wagging

Right-biased tail wags are ones biased to the right side of a dog’s body, as viewed from the rear. Studies show that dogs were relaxed when presented with a conspecific showing right-biased tail wagging, illustrating right-biased tail wagging as communicating positive feelings, or demonstrate an approach response. Moreover, dogs show this tail-wagging behaviour upon presentation of their owner.

Left-biased Tail Wagging

Left-biased tail wags are ones biased to the left side of a dog’s body, as viewed from the rear. Dogs that were presented with a conspecific displaying this tail wagging behaviour were more stressed (revealed through heightened cardiac activity as well as behaviour) in comparison to dogs presented with conspecifics showing right-biased tail wagging behaviour. This increased emotional response suggest that left-biased tail wagging communicates negative feelings, or demonstrates a withdrawal response. Furthermore, dogs show this tail wagging behaviour in the presence of an unfamiliar, dominant conspecific.

Slow Versus High-speed

A slow-wagging tail is quite different than a high-speed wagging tail. The former display commonly denotes a less social signal, whereas the latter often signifies sociality in dogs.

Ears

Keep what is there... add as references

Head and Body

Keep what is there. Add: Turning the head away may indicate fear, but is also recognized as a calming signal.A dominant dog will display an upright posture and/or stiff legs. In comparison, submissiveness may be revealed through a lowering of the body or rolling onto the side, revealing the underbelly. A slight raise of the front paw during a sitting position may indicate stress, fear, and/or insecurity.

Common Emotional States Revealed via Body Language

A relaxed dog will display upward ear position, with the tail positioned downward. In comparison, an anxious or fearful dog will display a tense body posture, backward position of the ears, head turning, and/or lip smacking. The tail may also be tucked between the hind legs. Finally, an aggressive dog will display a stiff tail (which may be wagging slowly), a forward ear position, as well as a wrinkled nose. If these characteristics are present, it is very important to respond accordingly in order to avoid attack. Aggression may occur an inappropriate response is made following warning signals. For example, children often misinterpret the body language of dogs, especially when such motions precede an aggressive behaviour. As a result of this misinterpretation, children are most often the victims of dog bites.

Types of Cues

Behavioural Cues

Behavioural cues are simply signals that are communicated through the behaviour of a dog. These include specific movements involving the body posture, the ears, the head/eyes, and the tail. Behavioural cues are simply assessing the movements of a dog, without considering the emotions and/or intentions underlying such movements. For example, tail wagging is a behavioural cue.

Holistic Cues

Holistic cues are approximate evaluations of the observed overall state of the animal. Holistic cues can be subdivided into two categories: emotional, and intentional. Consistent with recent research that suggests a dog’s ability to feel happy, angry, or sad, emotional cues intend to describe the dog’s feelings regarding a certain situation. For example, assuming that a dog is fearful based primarily on the position of the tail. Intentional cues are ones that are expressed through body language that communicate the overall intention of the dog. These are cues that reveal why the animal is acting a certain way. For example, the display of a play-bow posture may be described as occurring in order to initiate play (an intention).

Other

Other cues are any type of cue that is not behavioural, or holistic. These include miscellaneous cues, or the overall absence of cues.

Learning Achievement

Understanding and properly interpreting the characteristics displayed by dogs during learning can significantly aid in successive obedience training. As human-dog interactions occur quite frequently, a lack of obedience training can lead to unwanted behavioural problems. Thus, it is very important for effective training to occur. 

Successful training in dogs requires the owner/trainer to be able to correctly interpret the learning abilities of the dog. It is well established that body language can reveal emotions and moods of dogs, which can be quite helpful when assessing dogs during training.

Studies have shown that the obedience training of domestic dogs can be explained using operant conditioning methods. Like humans, concentration as well as motivation must be present in order for learning to occur. Therefore, understanding the dog’s motivation and emotional states may result in more successful training. Attention to others can be assessed in dogs by measuring the amount of eye contact made with the trainer, as well as the position of the ears. It has been found that dogs that make eye contact with the trainer, as well as display a forward ear position, are most successful in learning achievement during operant conditioning.