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Chihshang fault (Taiwan)
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Chihshang fault (Chinese: 池上段層) is a geological reverse fault system[1] located in the center of Longitudinal Valley (the East Rift Valley, the eastern part of Tai Wan), is a segment of the Longitudinal Valley Fault. Aligned from north-northeast to south-southwest, sitting between Central Mountain Range and Hai’an Range, which is the most active major collision zone between the Philippine Plate and Eurasian plate.[2] Chihshang fault runs about 35 km long[3] as a result of the plate movements of movement of the above two plates, from Yuli at the north to Kuanshan at the south.[4] Chihshang fault is continuously developing till now. Chihshang fault was claimed to be actively developing a fault as it keeps creating creaks and fractures on walls and buildings. Chihshang fault has a rapid surface slip which is about 2-3cm/year, and a 4cm/year creep rate at the dip-slip direction approximately.[5]
Type of fault
[edit]There are three types of fault, normal fault, reverse fault and strike-slip fault. Different type of forces leads to different faults' formation. With different type of plate movement, different forces have resulted. Tensional force is generated along divergent plate boundaries, where plates diverge and move apart from each other. The compressional force appears at convergent plate boundaries, where plates converge, move closer to each other. Shearing force has resulted in transform plate boundaries where plates slide past each other.
Normal fault
[edit]Under tensional force, the terrain is being pulled apart, elongated. Rocks less elastic will form a fault at a particular angle to the horizontal plane, the whole pack of rocks will slide down along the fault under the force of gravity.
Reverse fault
[edit]Under compressional force, the terrain is being squeezed and shorten. A fault is created under compressional pressure, the piece of rock is thrust up higher than the original. As the example of Chihshang fault.
The above two types of fault both have vertical displacement, either displace upward or downward. The moving block is the block which got the hanging wall, which hanging wall occurs above the fault and the opposite, the underneath is called footwall.
Strike-slip fault
[edit]A strike-slip fault occurs under shearing force. It does not have vertical displacement, but horizontal displacement. With force dives two blocks slide past each other, the terrain is eventually broken, forming fault which the displace movement is parallel to the fault line.[6]
East Rift Valley
[edit]East Rift Valley is one of the national scenic areas of Taiwan, it is a 150 km long rift valley.[3] This area is rich in cultural and natural value. It is an important tourist spot in East Taiwan. It has mountains, forest, wetland, trail, river, farmland, pasture and etc.[7] Is one of the important agricultural production areas in Taiwan.[8] The natural landscape favors agricultural industries a lot. An indentation low lying rift valley with two high mountain range aside, allows sediments and nutrients flow in with water from rain or streams. Which creates a thick alluvial soil, favors crops growing.[9]
Formation
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The collision of the Philippine Sea Plate and Eurasian plate can be observed on land between Central Mountain Range and Hai’an Rang. Philippine Plate moves in northwest direction with a speed of 8.2cm/year. Under accumulating increasing force, rocks break and displace in the structure of fault.[4]
Geology
[edit]The formation of the Hai’an Range did not take place in Taiwan, the northern Luzon arc instead. It is mainly composed of calc-alkaline volcanic formations. In late Miocene age where sea level is high, flysch-like Plio-Quaternary sediments deposited forming layered sedimentary rocks. Due to the compressional force generated by plate movements, the Hai’an Range rock layers experience folding, thrusting and uplift.
The East Rift Valley is formed from a group of Quanternary continental deposits.
Regarding the active Chihshang Fault, unit of Pliocene Lichi Mélange sits at the east of Chihshang Fault while the Pleistocene-Holocene at the west. Chihshang Fault lies more to the west in general, but it still cuts the terraces that lie on the Lichi Mélange. The terraces form both the flat, low-lying East Rift Valley and the bumpy Hai’an fold mountain.
The Lichi Mélange between the Hai’an Range and the East Rift Valley is being a mean of separation. It is a group of marine clays from the Pliocene age in the form of rock blocks. The unit includes ophiolitic rocks and Miocene sandstones. Significant folding, shearing, thrusting of both east and west thrusting were processed on the Lichi Mélange too.[10]
Fault creep
[edit]Faulting activities can take place with different results. For example, resulting in a major earthquake or non-detectable minor earthquakes. Fault creep is a gradual movement of two sections of rock. Creep rate is related to the earthquake. Creep rate of a fault is usually low before an earthquake, while during or after an earthquake always results in high creep rate.[11] Fault creep results in creaks on concrete walls, water drainage system and others, which created clear faulting trace that people can easily observe.[4] Fault creep activities had been continuously tracing as it clearly proves the tectonic activities. Along the fault, researchers found clear evidence of active creeping activities. Ruptures, surface breaks are some of the evidence of fault creep.[12]
Deformation
[edit]Deformation as a result of tectonic movement, under faulting usually results in the breakage of the rock or fractures.[13] The East Rift Valley is shortening at an average velocity of 2.1cm per year.[10]
Dip angle
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A dip angle is an angle between the Earth horizontal plain and the fault plane. Greater the dip angle indicates a steeper fault, while a smaller dip angle indicates a gentler fault which is more flat.[14]
Chihshang Fault has a SE-dipping direction, the fault zone extends from near the surface to 25-kilometer depth proximately. At the middle section of the fault, the dip angle is 42° between depth of 10 to 20 kilometer. The dip angle of Chihshang Fault are different at a different section of the fault, the angle increases to 72° and then decrease to 20° along the fault.[15]
Tectonic activities at Chihshang Fault
[edit]In 1950, there was a series of strong earthquake occurred along the East Rift Valley. The first three was the largest scale, magnitude greater than 7, and they took place at the northern tip of the valley which is where the city Hualien was located. The 1951 'East Rift Valley earthquakes' was recorded. This is a historical earthquake in Hualien made people have paid attention to the tectonic activities here.[16] For the later 20 years, there is no large scale earthquake but the fault development was still continued with some minor quake.[4]
2003 Chengkung earthquake
[edit]During the 2003 Chengkung earthquake, deformation also took place on the Chihshang Fault. The aftershocks created a fault-vend which is 18 km deep. The earthquake occurred on the 10th of December. The strong Chengkung earthquake with 6.8 moment magnitude brought numbers of landslides, rock falls and damage infrastructures to the area.[17]
Trace of the Chihshang Fault
[edit]Tapo Primary School
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At the opened field ground of Tapo Primary school, clear traces of Chihshang Fault can be clearly observed at the surface. The slide was titled due to the compressional force generated during faulting. The creaks appear on concrete walls. Part of the back side of the field ground was removed which displacement of rock layers was exposed and observed.[18]
Others
[edit]Other traces like creaks on roads, infrastructures, buildings, and walls have appeared all along the East Rift Valley fault zone.[10]
Research and findings
[edit]Professor Jacques Angelier
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Prof. Jacques Angelier is a well-known French geologist. He is an important person who has a great contribution to the investigation of Chihshang Fault. 1981 Prof. Angelier first visit Taiwan to have field research in the tectonics of Taiwan at the eastern site. During the 30 years' journey, Prof. Angelier continuously visits Taiwan every year for the research of Chihshang fault and the related tectonic movement in the East Rift Valley. Prof. Angelier has his last work in Taiwan in 2009, then he passed away next year on the 31st of January, at the age of 62.[18]
Rod-type creepmeter
[edit]Rod-type creepmeter is used to measure the displacement of two sections of the block at a fault. During fault creep and rock displace, the distance of two ends of rod-type creepmeter also change associatively, resulting in different data output.[11] Two aligned creepmeters were placed across the fault behind the slide in the opened field ground of Tapo Primary school. One end is at the top of the slide, the other end is at the end of the slide. Three others were installed at the fault zone in the Chinyuan village.[4] Creepmeter patterns indicate both temporal and spatial fault creep pattern of Chihshang Fault. Since 1998, creep meter data is collected daily. The temporal pattern was found that faster fault motion during wet seasons and dormancy during dry seasons. Thus, the rainfall pattern is an important factor which significantly affects fault creep movements.[19] A rod-type creepmeter is rather low-cost and easy to construct and illustrate. They are also accessible and easy to maintain as they are located on the ground surface.[11]
Ground penetrating radar and Seismic reflection
[edit]Through collecting ground penetrating radar, researchers are able to regenerate the three-dimensional fault pattern of the Chihshang Fault. Details such as variation of dip angle can also be access too. Ground penetrating radar is a good method for tracking the temporal change for the structure of the fault. But the groud pennetrating radar cable can only to the depth of 5 meter, seismic reflection lines are frequently used to obtain more data from deeper area. Seismic reflection technology can penetrate into depth of 60 - 300 meter. The practice of using ground penetrating radar to study fault has started since the mid-1980s.[2]
Survey of soil-gas variation
[edit]A survey of soil-gas variation is to test the gas composition of the soil. Results can reflect the geological, geophysical and topographical characteristics of a place. Automatic soil radon monitoring stations were set up at fault zones where rod-type creep meter already exists. So the results of soil-gas radon can be compared with data of rod-type creep meter. Unusually high soil radon concentration is usually observed a few days before the earthquake, but some exceptionally high soil radon can also be related to fault creep activities. Heavy rainfall is an important factor that will cause soil radon to increase.[20]
Other methods
[edit]GPS measurements
[edit]By reading into GPS data, speed of the two converging plates can be accessed.[3] GPS data is also used to understand the crustal motion faults.[1]
Groundwater pressure measure
[edit]Groundwater variations are measured by wells as the groundwater level varies over time. [3]
Constraints of research
[edit]Climate
[edit]Taiwan is located in a tropical climate zone, results in humid tropical climate conditions. Frequency rainfall causes quick erosion of rocks and changes the land surface like vegetation cover and agriculture land. It destroys some of the fault traces.[21]
Extensive human activity
[edit]Chishang is a community majoring in farming activity, there is a lot of farmland and crop yield. Further, schools, houses, and temples are located formed the community of the village. While a lot of fault trace can be found in site own by villagers or under buildings, the source of investigation is restricted and reduced.[21]
Other related faults
[edit]- Central Range Fault
- Coastal Range Fault [17]
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- ^ a b Shui-Beih Yu, Long-Chen Kuo. "Present-day crustal motion along the Longitudinal Valley Fault, eastern Taiwan". Tectonophysics.
- ^ a b J. Chowa,*, J. Angelierb, J.-J. Huaa, J.-C. Leec, R. Sund. "Paleoseismic event and active faulting: from ground penetrating radar and high-resolution seismic re ̄ection pro®les across the Chihshang Fault, eastern Taiwan". Tectonophysics 333 (2001) 241-259.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b c d Shu-Hao Chang, Wei-Hau Wang and Jian-Cheng Lee. "Modelling temporal variation of surface creep on the Chihshang fault in eastern Taiwan with velocity-strengthening friction". Geophysical Journal International.
- ^ a b c d e J.-C. Leea,*, J. Angelierb, H.-T. Chuc, J.-C. Hud, F.-S. Jenge. "Continuous monitoring of an active fault in a plate suture zone: a creepmeter study of the Chihshang Fault, eastern Taiwan". Tectonophysics 333 ( 2001) 219-240.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Kate Huihsuan Chen, Robert M. Nadeau, Ruey-Juin Rau. "Characteristic repeating earthquakes in an arc-continent collision boundary zone: The Chihshang fault of eastern Taiwan". Earth and Planetary Science Letters.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "Fault".
- ^ "East Rift Valley National Scenic Area".
- ^ "Council of Agriculture Executive Yuen R.O.C".
- ^ Alka Dwevedi, Promod Kumar, Pravita Kumar, Yogendra Kumar, Yogesh K. Sharma, Arvind M. Kayastha. "Soil sensors: detailed insight into research updates, significance, and future prospects". Academic Press.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b c Jacques Angelier, Hao-Tsu Chu, Jian-Cheng Lee, Jyr-Ching Hu. "Active faulting and earthquake hazard: The case study of the Chihshang Fault, Taiwan". Journal of Geodynamics.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b c Jian-Cheng Lee, Fu-Shu Jeng, Hao-Tsu Chu, Jacques Angelier, and Jyr-Ching Hu. "A rod-type creepmeter for measurement of displacement in active fault zone". Earth Planets Space.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Jian-Cheng Lee, Jacques Angelier, Hao-Tsu Chu, Jyr-Ching Hu, Fu-Shu Jeng, and Ruey-Juin Rau. "Active fault creep variations at Chihshang, Taiwan, revealed by creep meter monitoring, 1998–2001". Journal of Geophysical Research.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "What Is Deformation in Earth Science?".
- ^ "Dip Direction". Science Direct.
- ^ Chen, H.; Rau, R. "Earthquake Locations and Style of Faulting in an Active Arc-Continent Plate Boundary: the Chihshang Fault of Eastern Taiwan". American Geophysical Union.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Chung-Liang Lo Emmy Tsui-Yu Chang Benjamin Fong Chao. "Relocating the historical 1951 Hualien earthquake in eastern Taiwan based on tide gauge record". Geophysical Journal International.
- ^ a b Y. M. Wu, Y. G. Chen, T. C. Shin, H. Kuochen C. S. Hou, J. C. Hu, C. H. Chang, C. F. Wu, and T. L. Teng. "Coseismic versus interseismic ground deformations, fault rupture inversion and segmentation revealed by 2003 Mw 6.8 Chengkung earthquake in eastern Taiwan". Geophysical Research Letters.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b "Chishang story house".
- ^ Jian-Cheng Lee, Jacques Angelier, Hao-Tsu Chu, Jyr-Ching Hu, Fu-Shu Jing. "Monitoring active fault creep as a tool in seismic hazard mitigation. Insights from creepmeter study at Chihshang, Taiwan". Comptes Rendus Geoscience.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Ching-Chou Fu, Tsanyao Frank Yang, Vivek Walia, Tsung-Kwei Liu, Shih-Jung Lin, Cheng-Hong Chen, Chin-Shoun Hou. "Variations of soil–gas composition around the active Chihshang Fault in a plate suture zone, eastern Taiwan". Elsevier.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b J. Angelier, H.-T. Chu, J.-C. Lee. "Shear concentration in a collision zone: kinematics of the Chihshang Fault as revealed by outcrop-scale quantification of active faulting, Longitudinal Valley, eastern Taiwan". Tectonophysics.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)