User:Sloth36/sandbox

Anthropology 116S - Southeast Asian Archaeology - Dr. Stephen Acabado

File:Brunei1930s.jpg

The City of Brunei c.1930s

LEAD SECTION [Based on Week 5 Instructions] - Summary of Group topic, individual area of focus

Brunei, a state located on the island of Borneo in Southeast Asia, first established itself as a significant and powerful territory but declined from contact with the British government in Borneo's expansion of trade in the Southeast Asian area. From severed relationships from alleged piratical acts with the Spanish, Borneo suffered leading to Early European intrusions in trading ports[21]. Borneo's own decline was similar to Brunei's own deterioration over control of neighboring territories.

Week 1: Get Started On Wikipedia

Training

Wikipedia Essentials

Wikipedia's Five Pillars are:

• Wikipedia is an online encyclopedia

- encyclopedia, where to find summary of what's already known on topic

• Wikipedia has a neutral point of view

- articles should explain the major points of view in balanced and impartial manner (not "the truth" or "the best")

• Wikipedia is free content

- anyone can edit, use, and distribute
- attribute facts to reliable sources

• Wikipedians should interact in a respectful and civil manner

- respect to fellow wikipedians, even in disagreement

• Wikipedia does not have firm rules

- rules will likely change over time, discuss with wikipedians and continue to work on articles

Editing Basics

Paragraph: This helps you set the style of the text. For example, a header, or plain paragraph text. You can also use it to offset block quotes.

A : Highlight your text, then click here to format it with bold, italics, etc. The "More" options allows you to underline, add code snippets, and change language keyboards.

^superscript _subscript strikethrough computer code English big small

Links: The chain button allows you to link your text. Highlight the word, and push the button. The visual editor will automatically suggest related Wikipedia articles for that word or phrase. This is a great way to connect your article to more Wikipedia content. You only have to link important words once, usually during the first time they appear. If you want to link to pages outside of Wikipedia (for an "external links" section, for example) click on the "External link" tab.

Cite: The citation tool in the visual editor helps format your citations. You can simply paste a DOI or URL, and the visual editor will try to sort out all of the fields you need. Be sure to review it, however, and apply missing fields manually (if you know them). You can also add books, journals, news, and websites manually. That opens up a quick guide for inputting your citations. Finally, you can click the "re-use" tab if you've already added a source and just want to cite it again.

Bullets: To add bullet points or a numbered list, click here.

• Bulleted list item
• item
• item

Insert: This tab lets you add media, images, or tables.

Header text	Header text	Header text
Example	Example	Example
Example	Example	Example
Example	Example	Example

Ω The final tab allows you to add special characters, such as those found in non-English words, scientific notation, and a handful of language extensions.

– — ° ′ ″ ≈ ≠ ≤ ≥ ± − × ÷ ← → • · §

Week 2: Evaluate Wikipedia

Evaluating Articles and Sources

• A clear, easy-to-understand lead section, that is, the overview at the start of the article.
• A clear structure with several headings and subheadings arranged chronologically or by themes, with images or diagrams when appropriate.
• Balanced coverage of many aspects of the subject, with more important viewpoints getting more prominence in the article.
• Neutral coverage, written without bias toward a particular point of view, and representing disagreements according to their representation in reliable sources.
• Reliable sources are used throughout the article. For example, references to NASA rather than relying on an amateur's blog for information about Mars.

Assigned Article: Ayutthaya Kingdom

• Is everything in the article relevant to the article topic? Is there anything that distracted you?
  • Most of the article is relevant to the topic
  • The daily life input within the "Culture and Society" is vague; very little information, hard to connect clothing to daily life

• Is the article neutral? Are there any claims, or frames, that appear heavily biased toward a particular position?
  • The lead section/summary is more based on descriptions, does not seem exactly accurate academically, however rest of the article is neutral
  • no claims that appear heavily biased
• Are there viewpoints that are overrepresented, or underrepresented?
  • the viewpoints of the section "Second Burmese Wars" is very underrepresented, not much description
  • "Notable foreigners" section and image gallery also very limited in information/images
• Check a few citations. Do the links work? Does the source support the claims in the article?
  • Citation 21 → "World Heritagae Site Ayutthaya". UNESCO. Archived from the original on 10 April 2010. Retrieved 3 April 2010. → requested URL not found on server
  • Citation 48 → "The Economy and Economic Changes". The Ayutthaya Administration. Department of Provincial Administration. Archived from the original on 20 November 2010. Retrieved 30 January 2010. →Link works, somewhat supports claims in article, source itself is vague/has limited information
  • Citation 52 → "The Beginning of Relations with Buropean Nations and Japan (sic)". Thai Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 2006. Archived from the original on 15 October 2002. Retrieved 11 February 2010. → Link works, supports claims in article, however archive itself does not provide sources/links to where the site got their information
• Is each fact referenced with an appropriate, reliable reference? Where does the information come from? Are these neutral sources? If biased, is that bias noted?
  • Yes, most facts are referenced with appropriate references, besides some links that do not work/are accurate
  • There are neutral sources, but biased references are not noted, as most sentences with this start with assumptions
• Is any information out of date? Is anything missing that could be added?
  • A section on the present existence of the kingdom could be added; tourism, or modern tourism could be added into the culture and society section; how people of the region remember the area, etc
• Check out the Talk page of the article. What kinds of conversations, if any, are going on behind the scenes about how to represent this topic?
  • sections contradicting with Thai sources; irrelevant subsections being removed; multiple external links modified
• How is the article rated? Is it a part of any WikiProjects?
  • The article is rated as a level-4 vital article, B-Class. It is part of 4 WikiProjects: WikiProject Southeast Asia, WikiProject Former countries, WikiProject Thailand, and WikiProject Middle Ages.
• How does the way Wikipedia discusses this topic differ from the way we've talked about it in class?
  • Wikipedia discusses the history, development, existence, years active, people involved
  • In class, the topic is discussed more in regards to historical and modern archaeology/research and study, what hasn't been found, or lacking evidence

Week 3: Add to an article

Assigned Article: Ayutthaya Kingdom

• Add 1-2 sentences to a course-related article, and cite that statement to a reliable source

"Rice production also became tenuous, from the major floods causing rice shortages and weak production systems. A flood in Thailand in 1917 destroyed more than 450,000 hectare of rice (about 21% of the crop), making it difficult for rice cultivation and selling in rice trading marketplaces."

• Add in the economy section, rice export not only banned from famine because of natural calamity or war, but systems another significant reason for loss of rice export

Sources and Citations

Source citation: Sharma, S. D. (2010). Rice: Origin, antiquity and history. Enfield: Science Publishers. p.208

Intertwine: Evaluate & improve a Wikipedia article with your peers

Suggestions for article improvement
Here are a set of ideas to improve the article from an Intertwine "Evaluating an Article" session.

Set of Ideas: for "Cheeseburger" article

• In the history section, towards the end of the fourth paragraph, citations on hamburgers in Hamburg, Germany should be included.
  
• The second sentence in the Ingredients section seems like a personal opinion.
  
• Religious section is not relevant to the central themes of a cheeseburger
  
• Citation for the great plains and cattle ranching in the History section in the first sentence.
  
• Reference #5 does not take you to Pasadena Sun. It doesn't have any info on it about cheeseburgers.
  
• Maybe have a "Hamburger Records" or "Popular culture" section for inclassifiable information
  
• Article 26 seems unreliable. New York Post is heavily slanted right.
  
• Reference #11 is a blog post, which should not be included as reference in Wikipedia.

Ideas suggested by Intertwine group: Nmermoud, Msaimeevo, Christopher Sanders (user: sande2cj), PinkPanther4597, User Sloth36(Eunice Park), Nathan Blottie - Danku, ElizabethOgunsuyi — Preceding unsigned comment added by PinkPanther4597 (talk • contribs) 19:29, 28 January 2018 (UTC)

Week 4: Choose your topic / Find your sources

Article Chosen: Peter Bellwood

Suggestions:

• Photo of Peter Bellwood; images of fieldsites
• Not just stating the titles/publications of Bellwood, would add summaries to each book/publication/article
• Personal life section and education
• How his education ties to his research
• What he is doing in present day; what research he is studying at the moment
• What major contributions made to fieldwork
• Add more sources; sources are outdated as 2 out of the 5 references are pages that are missing from directory
• Find more thorough resources on Bellwood's research/studies

Group Project Topic

Topic: Post-1500 Archaeology of Southeast Asia

Sections: Intro: All What is colonialism? Overall, what motivates colonialism and the conquest? What is archaeology of colonization and how does this relate to historical archaeology? What was the goal of Europeans? (to access the spice island)

Silk Route and Spice trade - Shannon
Philippines and Spanish - Liron
Singapore and English- Pouya
Indonesia and the Dutch - Alondra
Brunei and the British - Eunice
Vietnam - Lorena

Conclusion: All - Summary

⅔ pages not double spaced, at least 2 sources per person, add FINALIZED section to google doc

Notes from talk with Acabado: the overall theme of our presentation and paper should be discussing European conquest in 16th century Southeast Asia and the archaeological work done in order to best understand this. (He said there isn’t a lot of work but use the sources provided in the essay he gave us to help) We should discuss capitalism, trade ( do not discuss language and integration of it, he said this is not relevant) Main goal of paper: Southeast Asia in the 1600 century and how contact with European groups shaped Southeast Asia Make sure to address all of this for your section, but do not explain what like archaeology of colonization is, since that will be included in the Intro.

GROUP ARTICLE DRAFT IN SANDBOX OF: User:Loeraas/be bold

Week 5: Draft your article

Sandboxes and Mainspace

(Group Topic: Post-1500 Archaeology of Southeast Asia)

Main goal of paper: Southeast Asia in the 1600 century and how contact with European groups shaped Southeast Asia
Individual topic: Post-1500 Brunei and British Colonization and Archaeology

FIRST DRAFT:

Brunei is a state located on the island of Borneo in Southeast Asia, With the present population of around 400,000 people, Brunei remains a successful Islamic-identifying state by the present Sultan, Sir Hassanal Bolkiah, the 29th Sultan in the dynasty. Brunei was first established as significant and as a wealthy and powerful territory it is now from successes of the 15th century. However, a decline in Brunei sovereignty began from contact with the British government on the expansion of trade within the Southeast Asian area and international neighbors with Dutch and Spanish.

From the influence from the spread of religions Hinduism and Buddhism from India, Brunei became inspired by trade between coasts of China and Kalimantan, an Indonesia island of Borneo(Church, 2012:16). When Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese explorer, made Brunei a conquest for an expedition, the island was found to be linked into Southeast Asia and China’s trading network, leading Brunei to be as having strong commercial and political relations with the other Southeast Asian states and among the Malay Peninsula and Philippines(Church, 2012:17). Brunei’s relationship with the Portuguese did well for the island and allowed for trading posts to be established within the territory to collect and disperse valuable goods among Kalimantan and the surrounding islands. However, Brunei’s political and commercial power began to decline at the beginning of the 19th century from the result of largely developed European ports in Southeast Asia(Church, 2012:17). These ports allowed for goods to be imported and exported from local traders at a cheaper price compared to Malay ports. A port in was positioned in Sarawak, the north-west coast of Kalimantan by the British community in Singapore and introduced an Englishman named James Brooke that would continue to be a threat to Brunei and Southeast Asian populations until the end of the 1900s.

File:Jamesbrooke1860.jpg

James Brooke in year 1860

File:Jamesbrookeandsultan.jpg

James Brooke and Sultan

In the middle of the 19th century, Brunei was addressed from the British government for a request on the suppression of piracy and decrease the extension and promotion of trade, however this lead to a frail relationship between the British and Brunei(Hughes-Hallet, 1940:36). This relationship led to the resistance and retaliation from both sides, but in the year 1847, a treaty was reached between Great Britain and Brunei to allow for mutual suppression of piracy and commercial relations(Hughes-Hallet, 1940:37). Although Brunei was able to gain back confidence taken from British forces on the regards of trade and expansion, this also lead to Brunei’s downfall in the island’s relationship with other Malay kingdoms. During the 1980s, the Sultan had made multiple treaties to having a mutual understanding with the British consul, on the terms of trade and commerce, however, Brunei soon became known as having a “reputation for insalubrity” from the constant contact with the British government and treaties(Hughes-Hallet, 1940:37). This reputation lead to the British forming the British North Borneo Company.

In the year 1868, Borneo became a significant region in terms of coasts and sea-routes to China for Britain, which ended up threatening Brunei to lose control of certain areas of revenue as well as damage trade(Saunders, 2015:87). From the formation of the British North Borneo Company, British control established its authority over territories in North Borneo, which specifically targeted the island of Brunei. James Brooke, who ruled as the first White Rajah of Sarawak - the term “White Rajah” an example of British colonialism – continued to threaten Brunei with control over the Baram River from years 1868-1875, trying to obtain permission from the British government to annex he Brunei territory to protect the region from further loss of territory(Sauders, 2015:88-89). From the starting relationship with the British government, Brunei declined in power over control over trade, ports, goods, and their own reputation for years until the year 1984, when Brunei became a sovereign state and independence allowed for Brunei to develop and maintain healthy relationships with their Southeast Asian neighbors to this day.

SECOND DRAFT:

File:Brunei1930s.jpg

The City of Brunei c.1930s

Brunei, a state located on the island of Borneo in Southeast Asia, first established itself as significant and powerful territory but declined from contact with the British government in Borneo's expansion of trade in the Southeast Asian area. From severed relationships from alleged piratical acts with the Spanish, Borneo suffered leading to Early European intrusions in trading ports. By the end of the 17th century, Borneo's own decline lead to Brunei's own deterioration over control of neighboring territories.

When Brunei was made a conquest for an expedition by the Portuguese, the island was found to be linked into Southeast Asia and China's trading network. Brunei developed a strong commercial and political relationship with the other Southeast Asian states. This relationship soon severed and Brunei's political and commercial power began to decline from the result of British ports in Southeast Asia. These ports allowed for goods to be imported and exported from local traders at a cheaper price compared to Malay ports. Evidence of the relationship with India, China, and the Spanish was found in archaeological history in the 18th century on the island of Labuan as settlement for the East India company. In 1775, the company was driven away by piracy and the E.I.C gained exclusive rights to trade in pepper in return for protection. However, trade policies were threatened with the Portuguese in spice islands, Spanish in the Philippines, and the Dutch in the South. Direct trade suffered and pepper territories became expired. By the 18th century, Brunei sultans had minimal control over trade districts, leading to more piracy and oppression towards pepper traders and planters.

The signing of the Treaty of Labuan on 18 December 1846.

In the mid-19th century, British addressed Brunei on the suppression of piracy and decreased the extension and promotion of trade. In year 1847, a treaty was reached between Great Britain and Brunei to allow for mutual suppression of piracy and commercial relations. During the 1980s, the Sultan had made multiple treaties with the British consul which eventually lead to the British forming the British North Borneo Company. Brunei began to dwindle from these treaties, but sociocultural changes appeared in the 20th century when a coal mining lease in 1882 was granted in Muara, Brunei and oil was discovered in 1926. Archaeological evidence of a variety of copper, antimony ores, gold and plumbago were found in these locations. Brunei improved as a state when revenues acquired from years of coal and oil mining. Discovery of oil lead to economic freedom, demographic changes, infrastructure, and educational opportunities. Centuries of trade oppression with the British weakened Brunei as a state, eventually leading to limited findings of data and material culture of the Brunei community and archaeological work today.

Sources:

• Whiter the Indigenous Languages of Brunei Darussalam? Oceanic Linguistics, 34(1), 27-43. doi:10.2307/3623110

• Church, P. (2017). A short history of South-East Asia. John Wiley & Sons.

• Hughes-Hallett, H. (1940). A Sketch of the History of Brunei. Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. 18, No. 2 (137), 23-42. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/41559952

• Saunders, G. E. (2015). A history of Brunei. London : Routledge, 2015.

GROUP ARTICLE DRAFT IN SANDBOX OF: Draft:Post - 1500 Southeast Asia Archaeology

Week 6: Thinking about Wikipedia

Review and Copy Edit

Notes from Professor on overall paper:

• careful how use language and perspective → needs to read like a wikipedia article
• colonial archaeology is also "indigenous archaeology"
• "a dominantly colonial-perspective article is a biased one" and wiki articles need to be objective
• keep in mind when reviewing - be objective
• write with perspective in mind, of indigenous archaeology, not dominantly colonial perspective
• dominantly colonial perspective article is a biased one
• articles need to be objective

Week 7: Respond to draft review

Overall paper revisions:

• introduction: define "early" Southeast Asia

• group edited individual parts; revised parts to be objective; inclusive of indigenous perspectives; careful with colonial language, do not make the British sound like the cultural savior
• my part (on Brunei and British colonization), not dominantly colonial perspective, inclusive of both colonial and indigenous archaeology, no need to make edits; second draft uploaded as final draft under "Week 10 - Final Article"

Week 8: Begin moving your work to Wikipedia

• Week 5 contains article first written, altered one source not used in second draft of article
• Direction of explaining Brunei also changed; took out information regarding Borneo and effects from British control
• emphasized on Brunei as a state that not only damaged relations with the British, but also had a fallout within state and Southeast Asian neighbors
• shortened overall individual part, too long for paper (from 1 1/4 page to 2/3), took out/revised 'colonial' perspective lines

Week 9: Continue improving your article

• Consider adding an image/images to article

Week 10: In-class presentation

Final Article

Group Topic: Post-1500 Archaeology of Southeast Asia

Main goal of paper: Southeast Asia in the 1600 century and how contact with European groups shaped Southeast Asia
Individual topic: Brunei and British Colonization

File:Brunei1930s.jpg

The City of Brunei c.1930s.

Brunei, a state located on the island of Borneo in Southeast Asia, first established itself as significant and powerful territory but declined from contact with the British government in Borneo's expansion of trade in the Southeast Asian area. From severed relationships from alleged piratical acts with the Spanish, Borneo suffered leading to Early European intrusions in trading ports. By the end of the 17th century, Borneo's own decline lead to Brunei's own deterioration over control of neighboring territories.

When Brunei was made a conquest for an expedition by the Portuguese, the island was found to be linked into Southeast Asia and China's trading network. Brunei developed a strong commercial and political relationship with the other Southeast Asian states. This relationship soon severed and Brunei's political and commercial power began to decline from the result of British ports in Southeast Asia. These ports allowed for goods to be imported and exported from local traders at a cheaper price compared to Malay ports. Evidence of the relationship with India, China, and the Spanish was found in archaeological history in the 18th century on the island of Labuan as settlement for the East India company. In 1775, the company was driven away by piracy and the E.I.C gained exclusive rights to trade in pepper in return for protection. However, trade policies were threatened with the Portuguese in spice islands, Spanish in the Philippines, and the Dutch in the South. Direct trade suffered and pepper territories became expired. By the 18th century, Brunei sultans had minimal control over trade districts, leading to more piracy and oppression towards pepper traders and planters.

The signing of the Treaty of Labuan on 18 December 1846.

In the mid-19th century, British addressed Brunei on the suppression of piracy and decreased the extension and promotion of trade. In year 1847, a treaty was reached between Great Britain and Brunei to allow for mutual suppression of piracy and commercial relations. During the 1980s, the Sultan had made multiple treaties with the British consul which eventually lead to the British forming the British North Borneo Company. Brunei began to dwindle from these treaties, but sociocultural changes appeared in the 20th century when a coal mining lease in 1882 was granted in Muara, Brunei and oil was discovered in 1926. Archaeological evidence of a variety of copper, antimony ores, gold and plumbago were found in these locations. Brunei improved as a state when revenues acquired from years of coal and oil mining. Discovery of oil lead to economic freedom, demographic changes, infrastructure, and educational opportunities. Centuries of trade oppression with the British weakened Brunei as a state, eventually leading to limited findings of data and material culture of the Brunei community and archaeological work today.

GROUP ARTICLE DRAFT IN SANDBOX OF: Draft:Post - 1500 Southeast Asia Archaeology

FINAL GROUP ARTICLE

Located in "Post-1500 Southeast Asia Archaeology"

Southeast Asia is extensive in diversity, from its cultural geography to its borders that lay the foundation to its physical geography and cultural diversity. Early 16^th  century Southeast Asia countries faced the sedimentation of states and were propelled towards modern day civilization. This formation began through Southeast Asian contact with foreign groups and the adaptation and integration of such culture into the demographics and geography of Southeast Asia. Post-1500 Southeast Asia Archaeology, is often referred to as the archaeology of colonization as it focuses on the period of European colonization in Southeast Asia.  Archeology of colonization thus is the analysis of trade ports, colonial and indigenous communities, and the study of historic and cultural patterns. Additionally, archaeology of colonization hopes to gain a deeper understanding of the history and culture of indigenous communities in particular, because history is often told and influenced by the more powerful groups, which is in this case, colonizers.

Colonial perspectives have resulted in a lack of archaeological research or anthropological support that better understands the effect of European powers in Southeast Asia. In the following paper we provide a brief overview of European colonization in Southeast Asian countries, specifically by the Spanish in Philippines, English in Singapore, Dutch in Indonesia, British in Brunei, and French/British in Vietnam. All of which began and expanded through the silk route and spice trade. We also discuss the limited archaeological work that has been conducted in these areas and the insight this provides into the culture, geography, and social and political systems of these countries beginning in the 16th century.

The Silk Road Trade expanded European Colonization of SE Asia

The source of many material distributions in Southeast Asia was a result of the Silk Road era; it consisted of historical sea and land trade routes across Afro-Eurasian that connects East, South, and Western Asia with the Mediterranean and the European world. It also included North and East Africa. The Silk Road consisted of trade routes that were expanding overtime due to different colonies’ desires for specific items.

The Silk Road Trade

The 15^th to 17^th centuries was a time known as the “age of discovery” in Southeast Asia because of the recognition and demand of SE Asia’s natural resources from European powers.  In SE Asia, spices were useful and popular for creating flavor in food. Spices were in high demand and were imported and exported through the Silk Road, which flourished during the colonization period. It included black pepper, cinnamon, cardamom, ginger, turmeric, nutmeg, and cloves, nutmeg, etc. Nutmeg was the most popular and most expensive to get because of how scarce it was.

European Colonization of Southeast Asia

The European colonization of Southeast Asia began in the 16^th century when the Dutch and Portuguese colonized Southeast Asia for their spices. Throughout the 17^th and 18^th century, the British and Dutch began to colonize Southeast Asia. The Dutch arrived in Batavia and established Dutch East Indies. The British established themselves in the Straits Settlements, British Malaya, Borneo, and Burma.  In the 19^th century, the French established French Indochina. All of Southeast Asia was colonized, except Thailand.

Not only spices, but also ceramics, stoneware, and porcelain were popular items used for trading in Southeast Asia. Mainland Southeast Asia is distinguished by the ongoing complementary coexistence of two major ceramic traditions-earthenware and stoneware. The first evidence of earthware ceramics was in Japan 12,000 years ago. Pottery and clay vessels originated from China 20,000 years ago. The earliest forms of stoneware were found in Indus Valley Civilisation and China. The Xia Dynasty, during 1700-1050 BCE, had evidence of the earliest forms of stoneware, which is a source of where the product originated from. Stoneware production has continued for more than three thousand years. These two basic types of clay bodies have been used for processing, amending, and forming of the clay body; the use of resins, pigments, slips, and glazes; and the development of firing procedures and kilns.

Dutch Colonization of Indonesia

The Dutch used trade to change the political and physical geography of Indonesia. The first Dutch fleet arrived in Indonesia in 1596 and in 1619 they seized Jakarta (the Capital of Indonesia) and established the city of Batavia . Forts were established to ensure they maintained power and control, some of the most historic forts can be found in the Banda Islands, also known as the spice islands. A well-known fort is Fort Nassua, in the Banda Islands. It was built by the Dutch in 1609, it was the center for the Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie (VOC), "United East India Company", which was the primary trading company of the Dutch . Similarly to Batavia, the Banda Islands were used as a center for trade and a place to capitalize on the spice market. In the 16^th century the Banda Islands were the only known source of nutmeg, consequently making them a major site for power in the world of trade .

Archaeological Evidence in Dutch Forts and the Banda Islands

The Dutch forts, Fort Diamond and [[Fort Speelwijk]] in Banten, Java were studied and analyzed to shed light on the interaction between Bantanese elite and the Dutch East India Company (VOC). Archaeological evidence, such as utensils and vessels that were used to prepare and serve meals show that there was a sort of “reverse” colonialism were indigenous Bantanese culture had a greater influence on the Dutch, than vice versa .

Another site of archaeological work can be found in the Banda Islands. The Banda Islands, specifically an area known as Groot Walling, was studied to find whether nutmeg plantations were used as a signal of social identity. The study thus focused on material culture to see if inhabitants reacted to shifts in social and political control and the different trade distributions of goods.  Findings, such as a combination of ceramic, funal remains, and starch grins were analyzed, there was evidence of both European and Chinese tradeware but European, specifically English and Dutch tradeware dominates. Findings thus suggest that indigenous inhabitants may have adopted symbols of elite power through trading . Another study, conducted by archaeologists, Carlson and Jordan, also studied Groot Walling and the culture of the plantation in the 16^th century. They tested the hypothesis that the plantation was used to produce inequality and as a way for inhabitants to patrol and surveil each other. They studied the design of the plantation compound; their findings eventually refuted their hypothesis and instead suggested a different form of surveillance. A system, unlike those in the Caribbean islands which adhere to strong social control .

Spanish Colonization of the Philippines

An expedition lead by Ferdinand Magellan was the headwind of the Spanish conquest of the Philippine islands, followed by expeditions headed by López de Villalobos, who in 1542, named the islands after King Philip . Archeological evidence in the form of the wreckage of the San Diego ship, and the artifacts left behind suggest that the Spaniards arriving in the Philippines were there for conquest. San Diego’s Astrolabe was a part of the San Diego’s shipwreck, found along with many other artifacts including cannons and guns off the coast of Nasugbu, dates back to December 14, 1600. The heavy load of artillery brought over by the Spanish correlates strongly with the time of the Spanish colonization of the Philippines .

In 1564 the first moves towards colonizing were taken by Miguel Lopez de Legaspi. The Spanish city of Manila was established in the Philippines in 1571, effectively establishing Spanish roots in the Philippines. The Spanish colonizers began cutting out all threats to their grip on power, starting with the increasing Chinese population in 1603, massacring thousands of Chinese people.

Evidence of Philippine Archaeology

Archeological evidence of the presence of the Chinese in the Philippines was present in the form of the Oton Death Mask. The death mask, dated between the 14th and the 15th century A.D., was discovered by Alfredo Evangelista and F. Landa Jocan in the city of San Antonio, Oton. This archeological find suggests that the Southern Chinese traders brought this practice over to the Philippines. This mask was used to protect the dead from evil spirits . Another piece of archeological evidence that suggests Chinese presence in the Philippines is the Flying Elephant of Leona Shoal. The Flying Elephant was a blue and white china dish dating to the 15th century A.D. from the Ming Dynasty in China . Not only was their cultural diffusion between the Chinese and Philippines, through diffusion of religious practices, but also material culture .

In 1941, WWII hit the Philippines with the Japanese invasion, which ultimately resulted in the Philippine-US forces being defeated in 1942. Many Japanese artifacts are still being found until this day in the Philippines, including five Japanese warships from the battle of Surigao Strait in 1944 .

British Colonization of Singapore

Insular Southeast Asia is known as one of the most beautiful regions on earth today. When people immerse themselves into the various cultures that are apart of Southeast Asia, they find that influences from colonialism have shaped the native people’s perspectives and ways of life. For example, Singapore has been colonized by British influence, and has resulted in adaptation to their culture. Through this adaptation, colonization from Britain has allowed the native people of Singapore to develop interest in finding their roots through archaeological excavations. Archaeology in Singapore is relatively new, with excavations beginning in the 20^th century. The findings, however, have dated back to ancient China.

Taking it back to the beginning of colonization, Stamford Raffles of Britain colonized Singapore in 1819. He identified the island as a choice for a new port, and began negotiations with the ruler of the land at the time, the Sultan of Johor. Upon agreement, a treaty was signed and modern Singapore was born. Not until 1824 did the entire region of Singapore land in Britain’s possession. In 1826, Singapore was included in the Straits Settlements, which were a larger collection of Southeast Asian countries that were made British colonies . Trade and export became a huge part of Singapore, and through this was once considered the main place for trading and exporting by the British. The people of Singapore had then acclimated the surrounding culture, allowing them to adopt British mannerisms and ideologies which are still valid in modern Singapore. World War II prompted a change in ruling for Singapore. The failure of Britain to successfully defend Singapore had destroyed their credibility and trust. After a decline in order of the country, the infrastructure and economy started to steadily rise with the rising demand of tin and rubber from other regions .

Singaporean Archaeology

Interest in Singaporean Archaeology had not risen until 1984, but there was a long history of findings by Raffles himself upon first contact with the land. He discovered abundant remains of ancient settlement, with ruins of buildings made from brick, Chinese antiques and remains dating back to the ninth century. What these findings confirmed was the following of ancient Malay tradition and culture. Due to lack of interest, this was not pursued or investigated further, even after the discovery of stone tools in the 1890s and ancient jewelry in 1920s. 1984 was the year when the National Museum of Singapore was interested and received a grant from a Dutch petroleum company to begin a ten-day excavation. The site of interest was Fort Canning, Singapore, where an artillery fort had been built in 1858. The hill also was the site of an ancient palace which existed when Britain landed there in 1819. The most common items found within this excavation were ancient Chinese porcelain pottery and stoneware from the Yuan Dynasty. Evidence of ancient Singapore economy and trading had been found when bronze Chinese coins were discovered, the main form of trade during pre-colonial times. These bronze coins served as a wider piece of evidence for the growth of metals in Southeast Asia, proving the heavy use of iron, copper, and gold, especially in Fort Canning. Items used in daily life were found as well, among the most popular were Chinese cast iron pans, commonly known as woks. Copper used in Singapore was found to be exported from another Southeast Asian country, most likely Sumatra. Pottery was found to be one of the biggest forms of art in ancient Singapore. It was admired so much that pieces of pottery were included in burials of the people living in Singapore .

French and British Colonization of Vietnam

Alongside a new world for Vietnam, it was a change that many had to adjust to; as this was their new home. Recent findings allowed archeologist to conclude that the main exports were “tobacco, indigo, tea and coffee” . These are just some of the new changes that the people were beginning to see during this time. The French had influenced those living in Vietnam, which essentially became referred to as the “French Indochina” . This was a combination of 3 Vietnamese regions (North, Centre and South).

Architecture and Archaeological Evidence

As archaeologists continued to study and find evidence of the colonization of the Vietnamese, it was very clear within their architecture. In the city of Hanoi, “enclaves of colonial architecture are still very visible. The French settlers wanted to turn this city into the capital of their Asian Empire, and made many grand constructions in pursuit of this” . The main goals for a lot of these architectures were to essentially forget that one was living in Vietnam as though it was not a very settling and calming place. Instead, they were motivated to execute the idea of originality and culture of the country they were in, and intertwine what they believed to be the superior culture. Another example, which was found, was that of the Hanoi Opera House. Within this structure, it had a heavy focus on “European balconies and pillars” alongside French style cafes and cinemas. Aside from these influences that the French had on Vietnam there were influences on religion that took place after the 16^th century .

The British in the 16^th century wanted to open Vietnam up for trade. However the ruler at the time was against foreign ideas. The authors Jennifer Llewellyn, Jim Southey, and Steven Thompson (2014) found that the Vietnamese rulers wanted to abolish Catholicism and bring back Confucian ideology. Eventually the trade deals were accepted from the French, and around the 1750’s Pope Clement XII wanted Vietnam to be split up into two spheres. The first being the Portuguese missionaries and the second being French missionaries .

British Colonization of Brunei

Brunei, a state located on the island of Borneo in Southeast Asia, first established itself as significant and powerful territory but declined from contact with the British government in Borneo’s expansion of trade in the Southeast Asian area. From severed relationships from alleged piratical acts with the Spanish, Borneo suffered leading to Early European intrusions in trading ports . By the end of the 17th century, Borneo’s own decline lead to Brunei’s own deterioration over control of neighboring territories.

When Brunei was made a conquest for an expedition by the Portuguese, the island was found to be linked into Southeast Asia and China’s trading network. Brunei developed a strong commercial and political relationship with the other Southeast Asian states . This relationship soon severed and Brunei’s political and commercial power began to decline from the result of British ports in Southeast Asia . These ports allowed for goods to be imported and exported from local traders at a cheaper price compared to Malay ports. Evidence of the relationship with India, China, and the Spanish was found in archaeological history in the 18th century on the island of Labuan as settlement for the East India company. In 1775, the company was driven away by piracy and the E.I.C gained exclusive rights to trade in pepper in return for protection. However, trade policies were threatened with the Portuguese in spice islands, Spanish in the Philippines, and the Dutch in the South . Direct trade suffered and pepper territories became expired. By the 18th century, Brunei sultans had minimal control over trade districts, leading to more piracy and oppression towards pepper traders and planters.

Treaty of Labuan and North Borneo Charted Company

In mid-19^th century, British addressed Brunei on the suppression of piracy and decreased the extension and promotion of trade. In year 1847, a treaty was reached between Great Britain and Brunei to allow for mutual suppression of piracy and commercial relations . During the 1980s, the Sultan had made multiple treaties with the British consul which eventually lead to the British forming the British North Borneo Company. Brunei began to dwindle from these treaties, but sociocultural changes appeared in the 20^th century when a coal mining lease in 1882 was granted in Muara, Brunei and oil was discovered in 1926.

Archaeological Evidence in Coal and Oil Mining

Archaeological evidence of a variety of copper, antimony ores, gold and plumbago were found in these locations. Brunei improved as a state when revenues acquired from years of coal and oil mining. Discovery of oil lead to economic freedom, demographic changes, infrastructure, and educational opportunities . Centuries of trade oppression with the British weakened Brunei as a state, eventually leading to limited findings of data and material culture of the Brunei community and archaeological work today.

See also

• Southeast Asia
• Singapore
• Silk Road
• Dutch East Indies
• British Malaya
• Burma
• Thailand
• China
• French Indochina
• Mainland Southeast Asia
• Indus Valley Civilisation
• Xia dynasty
• Indonesia
• Jakarta
• Batavia
• Banda Islands
• Fort Nassau
• Fort Diamond
• Fort Speelwijk
• Philippines
• Ferdinand Magellan
• Ruy López de Villalobos
• King Philip
• Dutch East India Company
• Miguel López de Legazpi
• Death Mask
• World War II
• Japanese occupation of the Philippines
• Surigao Strait
• Insular Southeast Asia
• Stamford Raffles
• Sultan of Johor
• Straits Settlements
• National Museum of Singapore
• Fort Canning Hill
• Yuan Dynasty
• Sumatra
• Vietnam
• Hanoi Opera House
• Pope Clement XII
• Brunei
• Borneo
• East India Company
• Treaty of Labuan
• North Borneo Chartered Company
• Muara