Additional research has expanded the definition of the Glass Cliff phenomenon to include racial and ethnic minority groups.
Overview Section
However, the Glass Cliff phenomenon has only been proven in countries and sectors where masculinity is a highly valuable cultural trait. A study examining Glass Cliff effects on women leaders in Turkey, a country which has high levels of femininity, found that the preference for female candidates was higher in times of good performance than in times of poor performance [1]. Additional research by Michelle K. Ryan, Thekla Morgenroth and Teri A. Kirby has affirmed this finding[2].
Additional studies have found that women are likely to be primed as candidates in hard to win districts. [3] Specifically in the United Kingdom, women of the conservative party are more likely selected by party elites to run in less winnable seats than conservative men, though they performed worse than men in elections. This occurs both with experienced and inexperienced women candidates, and those with both conventional and nonconventional political backgrounds, indicating a glass cliff phenomena as opposed to any additional explanation. [3]
Explanation Section
Additional research has suggested that women see precarious glass cliff opportunities as the only chances for advancement. While men may view the same opportunities as risky, women candidates might be more willing to accept these positions out of necessity for career advancement purposes [4]. Additionally, women are more likely than men to maintain their positions at any level during times of crisis, making them more readily available for advancement opportunities during times of crisis than male counterparts [5].
Women with traditionally feminine traits are sought out in times of crisis due to a perceived ability to better handle employee issues[6]. Stereotypically feminine traits, including creativity, helpfulness, awareness of emotion all are associated with better being able to handle failure. Though these traits generally diminish the desirability of women for leadership positions, in times of crisis, they are viewed as valuable assets that aid in leadership changes[5]. These skill sets offer opportunities for non-traditional leadership styles, viewed favorably in times of crisis [7].
Glass Cliff situations are only likely to arise under certain conditions, in which women leaders have access to resources they view as favorable for leadership positions. Research has indicated that in times of crisis, women view leadership positions with a greater amount of social resources more positively than they do positions lacking in social resources. However, they view positions lacking financial resources equally as positively as those with a wide range of social resources [4].
Glass Cliff for Racial & Ethnic Minority Leaders
Recent research analyzing the head coaches of NCAA sports teams found that men of racial and ethnic minority groups were promoted to higher leadership positions in times of crisis.[8] Within historically Black colleges and universities, minority leaders were more often appointed than white leaders under all circumstances, but primarily in times of crisis were minority leaders appointed to leadership positions in other universities. These leaders are also likely to suffer from high visibility, scrutiny and performance pressures that their white counterparts do not receive. The study also found evidence for the savior effect, the idea that organizations will look for “saviors”, usually white, when minority leaders are unable to deliver high quality performance results in times of crisis[8].
Minority women face a duplicated glass cliff, being affected by both their gender and race[9]. Author Jennifer Farmer argues that Black women are often given unsustainable amounts of work in higher positions, creating barriers in their careers. Farmer also adds that Black Women may be promoted to leadership positions due to outdated stereotypes related to masculine traits black women are perceived to have [10]. In addition to struggles related to leadership, black women are also likely to face an added weight of micro-aggressions and increased questioning of qualifications [11].
Implications
Glass cliff positions risk hurting the women executives' reputations and career prospects because, when a company does poorly, people tend to blame its leadership without taking into account situational or contextual variables. Additionally, women who are appointed to glass cliff positions may be subject to increased criticism from shareholders, who may lack confidence in their leadership. In contrast, Men who assume leadership in times of crisis are less likely to experience this backlash, and suffer fewer reputation based consequences. Researchers have found that female leaders find it harder than male ones to get second chances once they have failed due to having fewer mentors and sponsors and less access to a protective "old boys' network".
The Glass Cliff phenomenon adds to the breadth of work on why women are less likely than men to succeed in leadership positions across a wide range of opportunities, from local school districts to the corporate sphere [6]. As a method of descriptive representation, women who see women leaders disposed of as a result of Glass Cliff leadership may be less likely to see themselves in positions of power, and be less likely to express interest in career advancement.
Examples
Liz Truss giving a resignation statement in October 20222020: Chrystia Freeland was appointed as Canada's first female federal finance minister during the economic crisis caused by the COVID-19 pandemic [12]. Her appointment to minister of finance was a direct result of former minister Bill Morneau's WE Charity Scandal.
2007: Erin Callan was appointed Chief Financial Officer of Lehman Brothers Holdings Inc. just as the financial crisis of 2008 was beginning, despite never having worked in finance. After leaving the company in mid-2008, she suffered from severe backlash, leading to depression [13].
2020: Simone Oliver became the Global Editor in Chief of Refinery29. Her appointment came after her predecessor stepped down due to racial discrimination allegations [9].
In 2022, Liz Truss became prime minister of the United Kingdom, following the resignation of Boris Johnson due to ethics concerns She resigned after 44 days in office, the shortest term of any prime minister in British history.[14] During her term, the United Kingdom was still recovering from a multitude of crises, including the COVID-19 pandemic, the Russia-Ukraine war, the exit from the European Union, and an ongoing economic crisis.[15]Dilma Rousseff at her impeachment trial in 2016
2021: Yogannda Pittman was promoted to head of the United States Capitol Police force, shortly after the January 6th insurrection.[9]
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