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Neurotropic factor (disambiguation)???
[edit]Neurotropic factors or Neurotropins (also known as chemotropic, chemoattractant and chemorepellent factors) are a broad category of molecules and proteins that are implicated in the process of axon guidance in neurogenesis during and after embryonic development. These factors work along with neurotrophins to shape neurons. Neurotropins guide axon and dendrite growth direction by acting upon the developing cell's growth cones to either attract or repel them. These factors are ultimately responsible for guiding the ends of neurons to reach their final locations within the nervous system from the place where they originate.
It is important to note that the name neurotropin can also apply to a specific, trademarked non-protein molecule. This substance is extracted from the skin of rabbits that have been exposed to the vaccinia virus. [1] The trademarked Neurotropin (NTP) is marketed as a pain medication and has been studied in clinical trials for the treatment of fibromyalgia and Complex Regional Pain Syndrome. [1] [2] [3]. Neurotropin's effectiveness at treating Complex Regional Pain Syndrome is not well known as the clinical trials were cut short for lack of patients. [4] The Neurotropin molecule and medication is not related to the process of neurotropic signaling.
Neurotropin function
[edit]Neurotropins are substances that are responsible for guiding the direction of growth in axons. During neuron development, the most distal parts of the growing cell terminate at the growth cones, which will later become axons and dendrites. The growth cone is a large structure supported by actin filaments and consisting of “finger-like” extensions known as filopodia and flatter, “web-like” lamellipodia and has been described as either "cone-," "club-," or "fan-shaped." [5] The axon growth cone is significantly broader and larger than the mature axon terminal and is forced into the correct shape by neurotropic guidance factors. As the neuron develops further, the growth cone will shift its direction of growth in response to the neurotropins that it encounters. Neurotropins known as chemoattractants will attract the growth cone, whereas chemorepellants will repel it. [6] Together, these factors will coax the developing cell to grow in a determined direction. Neurotropins, unlike neurotrophins, are associated with growth direction, whereas neurotrophins primarily are responsible for causing developing neurons to grow without any specific directional guidance. However, some neurotrophins also act as neurotropic factors [6] The process of neurotropin guidance as is understood now is fundamentally important for brain development. Without some system to guide where the outermost parts of neurons should be located, it would likely be difficult for the nervous system to develop the communication paths between neurons that are required. Neurotropic factors can work in different ways. One of which is by concentration gradient or diffusion, wherein some signaling molecule or protein impacts the growth cones depending on how much of it is present in the area. In this system, a neurotropic signaler is released from a source and diffuses outwards towards developing neurons. Those nearest to the source will be subjected to a higher concentration of the neurotropin than those that are farther away. As a result, those that are nearer may exhibit a different response than those that are farther away. A chemoattractant signaler released in this fashion will draw the growth cones nearest to the point of release closer to it, while a chemorepellant sent in that direction will instead cause the nearest growth cones to be pushed away while those farther away either move less or not at all. [7] Some other neurotropic factors may be released over smaller areas.
Common Neurotropins
[edit]To date, several different kinds of neurotropic factors have been identified. These substances are either signaling molecules or proteins. They act upon the growth cone as either chemoattractant or chemorepellant factors to shape the developing neurons. Chemoattractant factors will draw the growth cone towards them. Chemorepellants will do the opposite and push growth cones away. Many neurotropins are also found to play a role in non-neuronal areas of development or body system functions. In neural development, several neurotropins appear to have similar functions. It is possible that at certain points during development, these guidance molecules work in tandem.
Ephrins are proteins that seem to function as chemorepellants. Ephrin signaling consists of the ephrin ligand (of which there are multiple different kinds, generally grouped into either class ephrinA or ephrinB) and the Eph receptor to which it binds. Eph receptors are a type of tyrosine kinase receptor and like ephrins, are also divided into classes EphA and EphB. EphrinA ligands tend to bind preferentially to EphA receptors while EphrinB ligands prefer EphB receptors, although this is not always the case. [8] The Eph/ephrin signaling system inhibits the development of the growth cone. Cones in too close proximity to the source of the chemorepellant will not grow there and will instead be pushed away in another direction where there is a lower concentration of the signaler. The Ephrin/Eph signaling system is particularly important to the proper development of the visual system, specifically in the guidance of the optic nerve and optic tract. [9]
Netrins are a class of proteins, some of which function as chemoattractants and others as chemorepellants. They are found in a variety of animals, including nematodes and humans. During embryonic spinal cord development, it is thought that netrins are released by the floor plate and diffuse towards developing neurons. The resulting concentration gradient of netrins acts upon the developing axons of the spinal cord and causes them to move toward the brain. [7] Netrins are found in the developing spinal cord and seem to be released from the floor plate and diffuse towards the growth cones. It is also found to be expressed in the brain and may be present at later stages of embryonic development or beyond. [6] Netrin signaling is responsible for ensuring that axons that have recently crossed the midline in the spinal cord do not cross it again, but rather head up to the brain to form connections there.
Semaphorins are a family of proteins and were among the first neurotropic factors to be discovered. The first chemorepellants to be identified belong to this class. [10] Semaphorin repulsive signaling has been identified to take place in developing motor, sensory, olfactory, and hippocampal neurons. [6]
The Slit-Robo Pathway consists of one or more slit proteins and roundabout (robo), its transmembrane receptor. The two components act together to carry out a process of neurotropic signaling. Slit proteins are chemorepellants produced at the midline in the developing spinal cord. They bind to the robo receptors that grow on the axons of developing neurons. Once the growth cone decussates (crosses the midline), the slit protein comes in contact with the robo receptor. The resulting complex forces the developing axon away from the midline and towards the contralateral side, which ensures that it does not decussate again or get stuck growing in a loop in the same area of the spinal cord. [6]
Sonic hedgehog (SHH) is a primarily neurotrophic protein. Despite this, it has also been implicated in neurotropic signaling. In its function as a neurotrophic factor for neuron growth, SHH acts through a developing neuron nucleus via a direct pathway that directly affects nucleus function in a developing cell. For growth plate development, however, the mechanism is different. SHH acts on the growth plate as a neurotropic factor via a non-canonical pathway that bypasses the nucleus and does not require transcription. As the signaling takes place in the vicinity of the area being affected, the process is much faster than if signals had to travel to and from the nucleus. [11] SHH is released from the floor plate in the developing spinal cord and is believed to act as a chemoattractant. It draws growth cones of axons toward the midline to aid in the process of decussation, although it has also been observed to serve as a chemorepellant at times. [6]
WNT is a class of morphogen that aid in neuron patterning. They play a variety of roles in cell development, and it is believed that Wnt signaling pathways may play a role in neurotropic signaling. This system may act on the embryonic nervous system either on its own or along with sonic hedgehog. [6]
History
[edit]Neuroscientist Santiago Ramón y Cajal first identified growth cones at the end of axons in the 19th century while studying chicken embryos. [10] Cajal proposed that the cone-like structures he observed in the microscope were a feature of developing neurons and would undergo a process to develop into mature neurons with defined axons. He hypothesized that part of this process must involve a mechanism by which some external factor informs the direction of growth of the outermost region of the axon. These external factors would signal to the developing axon what direction they should grow in, and what areas they should avoid. This would lead them to their final, correct positions within the nervous system. [10] Cajal himself was not able to identify any such substances, but his description of how they would work is consistent with current understanding of neurotropic and neurotrophic factors. Later research, such as that of Andrew Lumsden and Alun Davies' 1986 study of trigeminal sensory axon development, seems to have confirmed that in at least some areas of neural development, Cajal's hypothesis was correct. [10] [12] Subsequent studies focusing on different regions of development have also become positive evidence for the existence of neurotropic factors. [10]