User:Rituparna Ray Chaudhuri/sandbox
JOHN MILTON’S PARADISE LOST (BOOK-II)
The violation of the normal English word-order and other elements in Milton’s epic blank-verse, which have upset some purists, are carefully and systematically employed in order to achieve different kinds of emotional pitch, to effect continuity and integration in the weaving of the epic design and all to sustain the poem as a poem and to keep it from disintegrating into isolated fragments of high rhetoric. David Daiches: The Use of Blank –Verse in Paradise Lost.
It is a well-known complaint among the readers of Paradise Lost, that they can hardly keep themselves from sympathizing, in some sort, with Satan, as the hero of the poem. The most probable account of which surely is, that the author himself partook largely of the haughty and vindictive republican spirit, which he has assigned to the character, and consequently, though perhaps unconsciously, drew the portrait with a peculiar zest.
Josiah Conder: The Hero of Paradise Lost.
To Adam and Eve are given, during their innocence, such sentiments as innocence can generate and utter. Their love is pure benevolence and mutual veneration; their repasts are without luxury, and their diligence without toil. Their addresses to their Maker have little more than the voice of admiration and gratitude. Fruition left them nothing to ask, and Innocence left them nothing to fear. Johnson.
To read Paradise Lost with appreciation and understanding, those readers of the poem who have been deprived by twentieth century doubts and denials of the privilege of reading it with a faith comparable to its author’s must accept the story as they accept Homeric fable. Whether we believe in a family of gods on Olympus or not, we must accept them as agents in Homer’s story. Whether we believe as Milton does, or whether we do not, in the interference in the affairs of men of a personal God, his son, his angels and his enemies, we must accept them as agents in Milton’s story. John S. Diekhoff: Intimate Knowledge of the Bible Necessary for a Proper Understanding and Enjoyment of Paradise Lost.
Three poets in three distant ages born
Greece, Italy, and England did adorn.
The first in loftiness of thought surpassed,
The next in majesty, in both the last.
The force of nature could no farther go:
To make a third she joined the former two.
John Dryden.
The reason Milton wrote in fetters when he wrote of Angels and God, and at liberty when of Devils and Hell, is because he was a true Poet and of the Devil’s party without knowing it. William Blake
“would be quite surcharged with her own weight, And strangl’d with her waste fertility; Th’ earth cumber’d, and the wing’d air dark’t with plumes, The herds would over-multitude their Lords, The Sea o’refraught would swell…”
While the former (Shakespeare) darts himself forth, and passes into all forms of human character and passion, the one Proteus of the fire and the flood; the other attracts all forms and things to himself, into the unity of his own ideal. All things and modes of action shape themselves anew in the being of Milton; while Shakespeare becomes all things, yet for ever remaining himself. S.T. Coleridge
OF MAN’S FIRST DISOBEDIENCE, AND THE FRUIT OF THAT FORBIDDEN TREE, WHOSE MORTAL TASTE BROUGHT DEATH INTO THE WORLD, AND ALL OUR WOE, WITH LOSS OF EDEN, TILL ONE GREATER MAN RESTORE US, AND REGAIN THE BLISSFUL SEAT, SING HEAVENLY MUSE, THAT ON THE SECRET TOP OF OREB, OR OF SINAI, DIDST INSPIRE THAT SHEPHERD, WHO FIRST TAUGHT THE CHOSEN SEED, IN THE BEGINNING HOW THE HEAVENS AND EARTH ROSE OUT OF CHAOS:
Of smallest Magnitude close by the Moon.
“Since first this Subject for Heroic Song Pleas’d me long choosing, and beginning late; Not sedulous by Nature to indite Wars, hitherto the onely Argument Heroic deem’d, chief maistrie to dissect With long and tedious havoc fabl’d Knights In Battles feigned; the better fortitude Of Patience and Heroic Martyrdom Unsung.”
What surmounts the reach
Of human sense, I shall delineate so, By linking spiritual to corporeal forms As may express them best; though what if earth Be but the shadow of Heaven, and things therein Each to other like, more than on earth in thought…
High on a throne of royal state, which far Outshone the wealth or Ormus and of Ind, Or where the gorgeous east with richest hand Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold, Satan exalted sat, by merit raised To that bad eminence; and, from despair Thus high uplifted beyond hope, aspires Beyond thus high, insatiate to pursue Vain war with Heaven; and, by success untaught, His proud imaginations thus displayed:
MY ANALYSIS
THE ARGUMENT
The consultation begun Satan debates whether another battle be to be hazarded for the recovery of Heaven: some advise it, others dissuade. A third proposal is preferred, mentioned before by Satan- to search the truth of that prophecy or tradition in Heaven concerning another world, and another kind of creature, equal, or not much inferior, to themselves, about this time to be created. Their doubt who shall be sent on this difficult search: Satan, their chief, undertakes alone the voyage; is honoured and applauded. The council thus ended, the rest betake them several ways and to several employments, as their inclinations lead them, to entertain the time till Satan return. He passes on his journey to Hell-gates; finds them shut, and who sat there to guard them; by whom at length they are opened and discover to him the great gulf between Hell and Heaven. With what difficulty he passes through, directed by Chaos, the Power of that place, to the sight of this new World which he sought.
The genius of the lamented person to whose memory I have dedicated these unworthy verses was not less delicate and fragile than it was beautiful ; and where cankerworms abound, what wonder of its young flower was blighted in the bud? The savage criticism on his Endymion, which appeared in the Quarterly Review, produced the most violent effect on his susceptible mind; the agitation thus originated ended in the rupture of a blood-vessel in the lungs; a rapid consumption ensued, and the succeeding acknowledgements from more candid critics of the true greatness of his powers were ineffectual to heal the wound thus wantonly inflicted.
The circumstances of the closing scene of poor Keats’s life were not made known to me until the Elegy was ready for the press. I am given to understand that the criticism of Endymion was exasperated by the bitter sense of unrequited benefits; the poor fellow seems to have been hooted from the stage of life, no less by those on whom he had wasted the promise of his genius than those on whom he had lavished his fortune and his care. He was accompanied to Rome, and attended in his last illness, by Mr. Severn, a young artist of the highest premise, who, I have been informed, ‘almost risked his own life, and sacrificed every prospect to unwearied attendance upon his dying friend. ‘Had I known these circumstances before the completion of my poem, I should have been tempted to add my feeble tribute of applause to the more solid recompense which the virtuous man finds in the recollection of his own motives. Mr. Severn can dispense with a reward from ‘such stuff as dreams are made of.’ His conduct is a unextinguished spirit of his illustrious friend animate the creations of his pencil, and plead against oblivion for his name! It is my intention to subjoin to the London edition of this poem a criticism upon the claims of its lamented object to be classed among the writers of the highest genius who have adorned our age. My known repugnance to the narrow principles of taste on which several of his earlier compositions were modeled prove at least that I am an impartial judge. I consider the fragment of Hyperion as second to nothing that was ever produced by a writer of the same years.
John Keats died at Rome of a consumption, in his twenty-fourth year on the ---of ---1821; and was buried in the romantic and lonely cemetery of the Protestants in that city, under the pyramid which is the tomb of Cestius and the massy walls and towers, now mouldering and desolate, which formed the circuit of ancient Rome. The cemetery is an open space among the ruins, covered in the winter with violets and daisies. It might make one in love with death, to think that one should be buried in so sweet a place. The very subject matter of the epic lends itself to the grand manner. The result is that Milton’s style and presentation touches now heights of sublimity. He leaves his mark throughout the epic with his grand style and remarkable use of blank verse.
“Poison came, Bion, to thy mouth, that thus was
poison-stained. How did it come to the lips of one like thee and was not made sweet? And what mortal, was so cruel as to mix for thee the poison, or give it thee, while thou didst sing? Surely he is one who fled from music.” Moschus: Epitaphium Bionis It may be well said that these wretched men know not what they do. They scatter their insults and their slanders without heed as to whether the poisoned shaft lights on a heart made callous by many blows, or one like Keats’s composed of more penetratable stuff. One of their associates is, to my knowledge, a most base and unprincipled calumniator. As to Endymion, was it a poem, whatever might be its defects, to be treated contemptuously by those who had celebrated, with various degrees of complacency and panegyric, Paris, and Woman, and A Syrian Tale, and Mrs. Lefanu, and Mr. Barrett, and Mr. Howard Payne, and a long list of illustrious obscure? Are these the men who in their venal good nature presumed to draw a parallel between the Rev. Mr. Milman and Lord Byron? What gnat did they strain at here, after having swallowed all those camels? Against what woman taken in adultery dares the foremost of these literary prostitutes to cast his opprobrious stone? Miserable man! You, one of the meanest, have not wantonly defaced one of the noblest specimens of the workmanship of God…Nor shall it be your excuse that, murderer as you are, you have spoken daggers, but used none.
Book-II of Paradise Lost is easily Milton’s most outstanding writing in poetry. The epic poem contains high drama, crisp narrative, vivid description and striking character portrayal. The conclave gives Milton the opportunity to come out with realistic portrayal of his characters. Satan sets the tone for the debate by asserting his position as the first among the fallen angels. In this debate Milton brings to bear his scholarship and study of oratory giving the participants majesty of eloquence both in its sweep and dimension. The high water mark of Book-I is its heightened narration and description. Book II has high drama, sharp characterization and sustained descriptive and narrative qualities. The canvas is vast and Book II gets off the ground with a major conclave of fallen angels planning how to salvage their fall.
….Or if Sion Hill Delight thee more, and Siloa’s Brook that flow'd Fast by the Oracle of God; I thence Invoke thy aid to my adventurous songs The most notable thing in the portrayal of the leaders of the fallen angels is that they impress us with their indomitable courage and unflinching determination. Milton describes the might, wisdom and eloquence of the fallen angels with such sublime power that the defiance that they hurl towards the vault of Heaven seems for the moment something more than an empty boast. They actually effect one great conquest in Hell: the victory of unconquerable will over adversity. The fallen angels respond nobly to call of their great leader and rouse themselves with matchless fortitude from their physical and mental prostration. Such an undaunted struggle against the force of adverse circumstances cannot fail to attract the deepest sympathy. Natural tendency of human nature to sympathise with the weaker side often makes the reader of an epic poem feel more affection and admiration for the defeated adversary than the victorious hero. That with no middle flight intends to soar Above th' Aonian Mount, while it pursues Things unattempted yet in Prose or Rhime As the leaders of the fallen angels deliver their harangues it becomes clear as its usual on such occasions that the views of the leader are going to prevail. Satan emerges from the conclave as the unquestioned leader. In a few deft and powerful touches Milton has given every leader a distinctive personality and an approach of his own. The debate gives the poet an opportunity to draw finely contoured beings. The participants are acutely differentiated so that their speeches stand neatly on platforms of party and principle. Each suggestion put forward by the leaders reveals the characteristic virtues of its advocate-courage in Moloch, clarity in Belial, self-reliance in Mammon’s plan for economic development and in Beelzebub an echo of Satan. Satan’s journey through Chaos has the makings of epic adventure. As he starts on his journey he raises the hopes of the fallen angels about a turn in their fortunes. Milton’s description of the fallen angels while their leader is away on an expedition to the new world is one of the grandest things in the whole epic. When their minds were lifted to some extent by the hopes mixed by Satan, they broke up their military formation and engaged themselves in various pursuits. Some of them spent their time on the plain, some uplifted on the wing sported in the air, and some entered into a race- like the Olympian or Parthian games. As armies rush to battle in the clouds so the fallen angels contended on the plain and in the air. Others with more fury began to rend up rocks and hills and swept through the air like a whirlwind. The strong point about Book Ii is its narrative which grips and sustains the reader’s interest till the very end. Though an epic, the call to action creates intense reader interest. The announcement about the creation of a new world and a new type of being called ‘man’ in it has all the interest and curiosity of science fiction. Satan throws the gauntlet before the assembled audience that the new world should be discovered and the creature called man should be lured to join the revolt against God. The significance of Book II lies in the use of superb epic similes, each a wonderful picture in itself. Moreover these similes are not merely decorative, they have undertones of meaning. Milton’s description of Chaos and Satin’s journey through it form one of the grandest and most original portions of the epic. The final passage of Book II describes how Satan passes through the gates of Hell and makes his way through Chaos through the newly created universe. Heaven, Earth and the underworld are traditional settings in epic poetry but Chaos, Milton’s fourth setting, has no precedent. Mason says about Milton’s description of Chaos that every part of this description of the deep of Chaos as seen upwards from Hell Gates is minutely studied and considered. Altogether it would be difficult to quote a passage from any poet so rich in purposely accumulated perplexities, learned and political, or in which such a care is taken and so successfully, to compel the mind to a rackingly intense conception of sheer inconceivability. In his description of Chaos, Milton suggests that it is not so much a place or something occupying space but a state of mind. There is nothing innately evil about this real. Evil is the perversion of order. Hell founded on the principle. Evil be thou my Good, is a parody of Heaven. Chaos on the contrary is a state of simple disorder. Milton’s style of writing has a sense of grandeur about it, a style that suits epic poetry giving both his thought and expression the highest sublimity. The two definitions of epic give us the elements, both of form and style of the epic: “a narrative poem, organic in structure, dealing with great actions and great characters in a style commensurate with the lordliness of its theme, which tends to idealise these characters and actions, and to sustain and embellish its subject by means of episode and amplification.” The epic in general, ancient and modern, may be described as “a dispassionate recital in dignified rhythmic narrative of a momentous theme or action fulfilled by heroic characters and supernatural agencies under the control of a sovereign destiny. The theme involves political or religious interest of a people or of a mankind. It commands the respect due to popular tradition or to traditional ideals. The poem awakens the sense of the mysterious: the awful, and the sublime; through perilous crisis it uplifts and calms the strife of frail humanity.” Hell seemed to burst with a wild tumult. Others milder in character took themselves to a silent valley and sang angel songs to the accompaniment of a harp. Others sat on a hill and carried on discourses. Some others explored the vast region of Chaos to see if they could discover a softer climate. It has been stated that Milton was only following classical convention in describing the occupations of the fallen angels. It must be accepted however that Milton’s aim in giving this description was not only to follow a classical convention but to give a significant place to this episode in the epic. The episode is full of striking imagery that captures the reader’s mind. Then there is Satan’s confrontation with Sin and Death- a description that reveals the characters of all three and is at the same time revolting. …thou from the first Wast present, and with mighty wings outspread Dove-like satst brooding on the vast abyss And mad'st it pregnant: What in me is dark Certain passages in Book II have a positive moral appeal and without being moralistic, these passages convey the meaning sought to be conveyed. This is because Milton conveys his message discreetly and indirectly only when there is need to do so and when the reader’s moral strength needs to be strengthened. In Paradise Lost, we find all the familiar features of the epic such as war, single combats, perilous journeys, beautiful gardens, marvelous buildings, visions of the world and the future, expositions of the structure of the universe, and scenes in Heaven and in Hell. Yet all these are so transformed that their significance and even their aesthetic appeal are new. The reason is that Milton has grafted his epic manner on to subject which lies outside the main epic tradition. By taking his subject from the Bible he had to make the machinery of epic conform to a spirit and to a tradition far removed from Virgil. Before him the best literary epic had been predominately secular, he made it theological, and the change of approach meant a great change of temper and of atmosphere. The old themes are introduced in all their traditional dignity, but in Milton’s hands they take on a different significance and contribute to a different end. Book II, like Book I, has a number of epic similes. Indeed there are as many as ten similes of this kind here. In this kind of simile, a writer starts with a comparison between, say A and B; but the second member grows bigger and bigger until it eclipses the first, with the result that while the comparison is effectively made the first, with the result that while comparison is effectively made and the idea conveyed successfully, the attendant imagery seem to be even more important. Paradise Lost may properly be classed among the greatest epic poems, though its theme is neither mythical nor historical. The theme of Paradise Lost is biblical and religious. This poem is undoubtedly one of the highest efforts of the poetical genius; and in respect of majesty and sublimity, it is by no means inferior to any known epic poem, ancient or modern. It follows the Greek model of epic poetry. The central event of this epic poem is the fall of man. The subject is derived from the Old Testament; and it is astonishing how, from the few hints given in that scripture, Milton was able to raise so complete and regular a structure in his poem. Indeed there are as many as ten similes of this kind here. In this kind of simile, a writer starts with a comparison between, say A and B; but the second member grows bigger and bigger until it eclipses the first, with the result that while the comparison is effectively made the first, with the result that while comparison is effectively made and the idea conveyed successfully, the attendant imagery seem to be even more important. Illumine, what is low raise and support; That to the heighth of this great argument I may assert eternal providence, And justify the ways of God to men. When the meeting of the fallen angels has come to an end, Satan’s supremacy is described to us in words which heighten our impression of his greatness in the midst of his infernal peers, he seems to be their mighty paramount; he seems to be alone the Antagonist of Heaven; he seems to be no less than Hell’s dread emperor with pomp supreme and God-like imitated state. Round him at this time are a cluster of fiery seraphim who carry their bright and horrendous weapons. Thus not only has Satan spoken in a tone of self aggrandisement. But his dignity and majesty have been emphasized by the author also. Of course, this does not mean that Satan is the true epic hero; but this that does mean that he has been endowed by Milton with a number of heroic traits. One important effect of such similes is to contribute to the grandeur of the poem and thus to heighten its epic character. For instance, the murmur of applause which comes from the fallen angels at the end of Mammon’s speech is compared to the sound of raging winds which have subsided. This simile leads us to imagine hollow rocks, a storm which has been blowing furiously over the ocean all night, a number of tired sailors who have kept watch all night, a boat which now lies anchored in a rocky bay. A little later, the sounds which are heard in a valley when the clouds have dissolved and the sun has begun to shine brightly once again. A characteristic of Milton’s literary style in Book II of Paradise Lost is the extensive use of the epic simile to convey to his readers the grandeur and the sweep of the epic poem. In this matter Milton has the benefit of his predecessors like Homer, Virgil, Spenser and others. Milton was influenced by them to such an extent that he often borrowed their similes. However, he comes out best as the user of the epic simile when he is original and his treatment of nature, myth and legend, travel and science and technical arts. And found no end in wandering mazes lost, Here again the comparison does not just end here, but develops into an elaborate and lovely Nature picture. In another comparison, we are made to visualize Satan burning like a comet in the sky. Another simile brings to our minds the fury of Hercules who, in his agony began to uproot the pine-trees of Thessaly and who flung his servant Liches into the ocean. In this way the epic similes or the long-tailed similes as they are also known, add to the interest of the narrative and enrich the poem. The first simile is seen in the murmur of applause which comes from the fallen angels at the end of Mammon’s speech. This is compared to the sound of dying winds after a storm, heard among the caves and rocks of the coast that still retain the sound of the wind because though the storm has ceased, the wind still continues murmuring among the rocks though elsewhere it seems to have died away. An elaborate nature picture has been drawn and this simile has drawn laudatory references from critics. An epic simile as used by Milton is as long comparison of an event, object or person with something essentially different. In the hands of Milton the epic simile becomes a means to produce the desired effect. The writer starts with a comparison say between A and B. as the comparison progresses, B becomes bigger than A until it completely eclipses the first. This kind of comparison is known as the epic simile, the long-tailed simile or the Homeric simile. Some critics have suggested that Milton makes use of the epic similes for their own sake and as a result they are not integral to the epic. This criticism may be discounted because the simile as used by Milton conspicuously heightens the grandeur of the poem. Nor would it be correct to state the similes are too highbrow or pedantic to go down well with the general reader. In the hands of Milton, the epic simile becomes a thing of pure joy. His art lies in choosing the right word and packing the maximum meaning in the minimum of words. Milton uses the simile to drive home a point through an elaborate manner of presentation. It at once makes the meaning clear through a vivid presentation. Milton makes use of a natural occurrence, a classical allusion, a historical or actual event as the basis for his similes. The means may be different in each case, but the end is the same-the simile contributes to the epic grandeur of the poem. In the next epic simile a comparison has been drawn between the athletic contest of fallen angels and the strange appearances of the Aurora Borealis in the sky which in the old days was supposed to portend wars and which to the fanciful mind has the appearance of the armies fighting in the sky. The simile reminds us of those strange sights which are sometimes seen in the sky and which are supposed to signify ill fortune to human beings. Milton here suggests by comparison the devilish activities of the fallen angels who are no longer angels but have become devils. There is another simile drawn from Greek mythology when due to an error committed by the wife of Hercules he met with a painful death. The purpose of the simile is to suggest that the angels are driven to feats of desperation born of the agonies of hell. Another celebrated simile compares Satan with outstretched wings to a fleet of the largest ships then known-the Indiamen. It is an elaborate picture that Milton has drawn and shows his love of exotic scenes and associations. Just as a fleet of ships would appear to a distant observer to be floating above the water and hanging in the clouds, so seemed Satan, as he fled in the far distance pushing forward to cross the bounds of Hell. It has been described as one of the most striking of Milton’s similes. In the second epic simile the sounds of the joys of the fallen angels are compared to the joyous sounds which are heard in a valley when the clouds have faded away and the sun shines brightly again. The joy felt by the fallen angels provides an occasion for Milton to bring before the reader’s mind a most pleasing scene of Nature. The simile is important because it marks a transition from the infernal debate of the fallen angels and suggests a renewal of hope among them. Satan has been compared to various objects. In confrontation with Death he is compared to a comet with its horrid tail portending national disasters and war. On another occasion the encounter between Satan and Death is compared to two black clouds hovering “front to front”. It is a nature picture showing nature red in tooth and claw. In the hands of Milton, the epic simile is not a trick of style but comes alive through a richness of comparison and an imaginative intensity of feeling. The next simile relates to the figure of Sin. The dogs which surround the figure of Sin at the waist are compared to the dogs which tormented the monster Scylla and then to the dogs which attend on Hecate, the queen of witches. Here the reference is to classical mythology. On a third occasion Satan flying through the air is compared to the monster Gryphon who is half-eagle and half-lion who chased the one-eyed man who had stolen the gold kept in the custody of the Gryphon. The comparison is brought out that Satan was travelling with the same expectancy as the Gryphon. As Milton depicts him there is something majestic about Satan as he sits high on a “throne of royal estate”, ready to make the first speech to the assembly of fallen angels gathered in the hall of Pandemonium. Satan rises to his full height as a leader as he by turn humours, cajoles and ultimately wins the confidence of the fallen angels. Satan may have been expelled from Heaven with his fallen angels but it has not affected his spirits. In fact he sees himself as the leader of the fallen angels. Yet he is careful enough not to make the other angels feel that he has usurped this position. As one used to the art of double speak he plays it both ways. He lauds the fallen angels for making him their leader of their own choice. In the same breath he talks of his leadership position almost as a matter of divine right and in accordance with the fixed laws of Heaven. In order to ensure that what he says goes down well with the fallen angels, he holds forth on the hazards of his leadership where he stands exposed to greater risks and dangers than all of them. As such he believes there will be no need for any of them to feel jealous of his position. Ostensibly he asks his followers to choose between an open war against God or action through “covert guile”. But of, Satan has already made up his mind about his strategy and is cleverly covering up his decision by giving it the appearance of a consensus. Mammon is the next speaker after Belial and he more or less underwrites whatever Belial has said. He rejects the concept of war against God and is in favour of maintaining the status after, the expulsion from Heaven. However, he does not subscribe to Belial’s idea that God in course of time will have mercy and withdraw the punishment imposed on them. He comes out with an original suggestion that having been consigned to Hell they should exploit the hidden treasures of the place like gems and gold and create in Hell a place, equal in magnificence to Heaven. His proposal draws a round of applause from the fallen angels. Belial who follows Moloch is not Milton’s favourite for Milton introduces him with the remark that his thoughts are low, that he understandably has no time for noble deeds. But of, Milton says he is the handsomest of the angels. The stand he takes is contrary to that of Satan and Moloch. Both “open war” and “covert guile” are anathema to him and he believes in making the best of a bad situation. For him total annihilation is much worse than eternal suffering. He argues that if they accept their present lot submissively, God may have pity on them and reduce their punishment. Even if this does not come about, they would in course of time get conditioned to their suffering in Hell and then it would not be as painful as it is now. Moloch is the first to speak after Satan. Milton profiles him in very impressive language. Described as the “sceptured king”, he is strongest and the fiercest spirit who had rebelled against God. Moloch is a militant and he stands for an open war. His stand is based in his belief that the fallen angels have nothing more to fear from God’s wrath, for the outcome can be only annihilation which would be preferable to their present state or some new state of existence and since no state of existence could be worse than the present state that would be an improvement. He is all in favour of an all out war against God using the very method which he has used to torture them. Like Satan he panders to the vanity of the fallen angels by saying that according to their nature, they must ascend and rise and not descend and fall. As Moloch speaks he dilutes his concept of total war to a type of guerilla warfare. None the less he swears by plan of revenge against God. Beelzebub who is the last speaker to address the conclave acts as the echo of Satan. He does not exactly fall in line with Satan’s call of an open war against God but at the same time he considers the peace policy of Belial and Mammon as one of appeasement. He is all for taking revenge against God and supports Satan’s idea of action in the new world to turn the newly created race of man against God. Milton portrays Beelzebub in glowing colours. He occupies a high seat next only to Satan. He radiates wisdom in his outlook and compels attention in his address. Since there are no volunteers Satan takes the floor again to tell them that he fully understood the reasons for their reluctance to undertake such a hazardous journey. As their leader, he adds, it is his duty to undertake the journey for his position draws not only laurels but also dangers. He ends up by stating that they should do all they can to make their present condition tolerable for as long as they have to stay there. He uses the devices worked out by Satan to win over the fallen angels. He addresses them as “Thrones and Imperial Powers, offspring of Heaven” and congratulates the angels for supporting his proposal of an invasion of the new world. He calls for volunteers to undertake the journey to the new world stating at the same time that it is fraught with the gravest of dangers. How subtly to detain thee I devise; Inviting thee to hear while I relate; Chaos is shown as having complained that at first Hell stretching far and wide was carved out of his dominion, that is God created Hell out of space formerly occupied by Chaos. Thus Chaos loses a certain proportion of space when God created a new place called Hell. Thus the division of space was between Empyrean, Chaos and Hell. Chaos suffered a further loss when the new world with its planetary spheres was created. Soon after his address Satan terminates the meeting fearful that there may be a volunteer for the trip and that would endanger his position. The word Chaos denotes a formless void or a great deep of primordial matter. There is no real bottom of Chaos and this means that it had no fixed dimension or boundaries. All above was Empyrean, all below was Chaos. Chaos is made up of four elements which are the four possible combinations of the four principles, hot cold, moist and dry which Chaos form chance combinations. Chaos is an ambiguous world and its moral quality is no exception. Chaos has no power to resist evil and not being a part of the creation it exhibits a curious affinity with the evil which conquers it, an affinity symbolized by Satan’s pact with Chaos. And chiefly Thou O Spirit, that dost prefer Before all Temples th' upright heart and pure, Instruct me, for Thou know'st ; Milton holds that nothing once created can be annihilated by the next chance. It will be seen there is no positive vocabulary for the description of Chaos. Milton produces his effect by negatives; without bound or dimension where there is no length or breadth, no time or place neither earth, air, fire or water. Satan’s journey through Chaos heightens not only the formless nature of Chaos but the very hazardous nature of the journey he undertakes, no doubt projecting Satan’s own courage, in going through with such a mission. Satan’s journey through Chaos requires all the courage and strength even of Satan. He finds himself for a time falling through what was later to be called airpocket only to be carried aloft again by a tumultuous cloud. His ears are assailed on all sides by stunning noise. He has no idea what direction to take until he finds the throne of Chaos and Satan’s chance meeting with him distracts from the sense of loneliness that marks the rest of the journey through a realm held in a sway by the monarch Chaos and his eldest child, Night. Satan’s meeting with the ruler of this realm is significant. Like Satan Chaos also sits on a throne and his other name is ‘Anarch’. Like Satan he too can be described as a prince of darkness. He shares the throne with Night, the first of all created things. Other denizens of Chaos are tumult, confusion, rumour and discord, making a complete mix of disorder and desolation that Chaos is. There is complete disorder in Chaos with the elements fighting against one another for mastery. The elements press the embryonic atoms in their service. The atoms are divided in their loyalties. No sooner does an element win a victory than another civil war begins. Chaos the monarch is himself the judge to give his decision as to which of the elements is the winner at a particular moment. But of, Chaos being itself the personification of confusion gives controversial decisions, thus making the civil war an even more confused affair. Next to Chaos the highest judge is Chance which determines the fate of everything. The confusion and conflict in Chaos can only end if God decided to create more worlds. Only then would harmony replace the confused fighting and disorder prevailing in Chaos. Milton falls back on myths and legends to chart out Satan’s journey through Chaos. Similar journeys have earlier been undertaken by Ulysses and Jason mainly as sea voyages. That is why we find so many allusions to the sea in Satan’s voyage. To give him a greater dimension, Milton makes him fly through the air also, but as he hears his destination, he is very much like a weary seaborne traveler reaching his destination. Chaos is agreeable to immediately come to a working arrangement with Satan. He informs him that the new world hangs from Heaven by a golden chain and he does not have to travel very much to reach it. Chaos is indeed happy if Satan’s succeeds in his mission of winning over the new world and thus taking his revenge on God. Seeing this conglomerate in Chaos, Satan shows his caliber in not buckling down to them. At the same time, he throws a bait to these as he seeks their cooperation to find his way to the new world created for man by God out of carving out a part of the empire of chaos. The bait he offers Chaos is attractive enough. If chaos helps him find his way to the newly created world he will find ways of restoring to Chaos, the part of the empire that was taken away by God to create the new world. Chaos is integral to the epic power and its significance lies in that it becomes an ally of Satan only because they share a common hatred for God. It gives Milton an opportunity to use his powerful imagination and description in giving us the firm contours of this formless shape. From Milton’s description of the ruler of Chaos the reader gets the impression that he is opportunistic enough to let others battle for him while he gives himself importance in proclaiming that he resides on the frontier of Chaos so as to be in a better position to defend his empire against encroachments. Chaos like Hell is a state of mind and Milton has a purpose in delineating it. While Hell has been depicted as a place of torment and torture, Chaos is far removed from Hell and has been presented by Milton duly as a realm of disorder. In fact Milton offers some consolation by stating that God carved out a territory from Chaos to create his new world for Man. Hell as described in Book I was a place of torture. Though a flaming inferno there was in it just as much -light as to make the darkness visible. The light also served to show the other regions of? Hell, the regions of sorrow where a flood of fire raged fed by the ever burning sulphur that was never exhausted. This was the Hell created by God after the revolt of the angels in preparation for their inevitable defeat. By indicating that Hell is both a state of mind and a place Milton gives his conception a double dimension in accordance with prevailing religious beliefs. He meets the religious requirements of those who believe that Hell is an abode of damned souls along with the fallen angels. For those who accept that Hell is a state of mind Milton gives the place a symbolic or allegorical significance. Hell for this school of thought exists in this very life and not the next life. When a sinner commits sin and has the remorse of guilt on his conscience, he is already in Hell. The mental torture that the sinner goes through is symbolized by the everlasting flames of Hell. The fallen angels themselves symbolically represent the sinners of this earth with one difference that while the sinners can repent for their sins, the fallen angels are unrepentant. In Book II Milton strengthens his description because Hell is an inseparable party of the format of the epic poem. In keeping with his own environment, Milton depicts Hell in the grimmest of colours. It is the universe of death because those angels who rejected God must experience a living death even as God is a source of life for those angels who were loyal to him. When the fallen angels enter Hell and discuss it as a place of evil for the first time they come face to face with the plight of their position in Hell. This realization becomes worse with the knowledge that this state of suffering will last for ever. While Milton conceived the story of Paradise Lost from, the Bible, Hell had to remain an integral part of his scheme. For his description of Hell Milton had to rely upon two sources, the Bible itself and classical mythology. In both he found the description adequate. In Book II of Paradise Lost he has enriched this with the strength of his imagination. The outcome is that hell becomes the fit dwelling place for all those monstrous and abhorrent sinners who are considered more monstrous than the Hydras and the Chimeras of classical mythology. By placing in it all conceivable instruments of torture Milton has fallen in line with religious thinking on the idea of hell because it fitted in admirably with his conceit of the situation. That is why both sin and death have been placed in this abode because Milton thought it proper that these figures with their horrific and frightening shapes had to find their proper place in the configuration of Hell. Both of them have a role to play in sending people to Hell and this accords well with Milton’s views on the subject. Milton’s depiction of Hell gives life to the view that Hell is a state of mind as well as a place by his accurate juxtaposition of the mind to the place. The freedom with which the poetry moves from the exterior to the inner landscape obliges us to give each word in it a continuous extension of the significance. Other poets have elaborated conventionally on the torments of Hell but not everyone has been able to give their description an inner as well as architectural meaning. The thirst I had of knowledge, and vouchsafed This friendly condescension to relate Things, else by me unsearchable; now heard With wonder, but delight, and, as is due, With glory attributed to the high Creator. There is also a river called Lethe, a river of forgetfulness, and beyond it is frozen continent torn by storms of whirlwind and hailstone. The continent contains a gulf and a marsh and serbonis which has swallowed up whole armies who tried to cross it. In the continent the damned souls feel at once the intense cold and the scorning heat. Milton gives a purpose in placing the river Lethe in the contours of Hell. The damned souls have to cross the river by a boat. Though drinking the waters cause one to forget all pain and suffering, the damned souls cannot drink the water because it moves away from them when they try to drink it. A monster called Medusa is another deterrent to the damned souls if they try to drink the waters. Milton has introduced four rivers flowing through Hell and discharging their waters into the burning lake. There is a river called Styx which is the river of bitter hatred. There is Acheron, the river of woe the waters of which are black and deep. There is Cocytus, a river for wailing and lamentation and there is Phlegethon, the waves of which are made of flames of fire. In describing the horrors of Hell, Milton puts apt descriptions in the mouths of various speakers. Moloch refers to Hell as ‘this dark opprobrious den of shame’ and ‘the prison of God’s tyranny’. Belial speaks of the eternal woe which the fallen angels have to experience. In another place he speaks of the ‘rim fires’ which are burning in Hell. There is another graphic description of the cataracts of fire which the firmament of Hell can spout forth. Mammon is shown as wondering what he can get out of Hell specially from the diamonds and gold which he believes lie buried in the soil of Hell. Like other speakers both Beelzebub and Satan are obsessed by the flames of Hell. Beelzebub describes them as corrosive fire and Satan refers to Hell as a ‘huge convex of fire’. In drawing the geography of Hell Milton has departed from previous allusions on the subject. In Dante’s Divine Comedy, Hell is situated in the centre of the earth but Milton has located it in the lowest regions of Chaos. Milton tells us as much when he brings out in Satan’s talks with the Anarch that Hell was originally a part of Chaos and was carved out by God after the revolt of the angels to be their dwelling place fitted with all the instruments of torture. In Milton’s concept Hell is situated below Heaven, a fact which is confirmed with many references to the rebellious angels who descended from Heaven after their revolt. The disobedience of man is brought about through Satan; as an indirect agent: he seduces man in revenge for the punishment inflicted on him and his crew for their disobedience to God. Therefore, the action of the poem takes place not in one spot, but in three different places separated by infinity of distances: the Material Universe, Hell and Heaven, and between all of them lies Chaos. The vast comprehension of the story, both in space and in time leading up to the point of Man’s first disobedience makes Paradise Lost unique among epics, and entitles Milton to speak of it as involving “things yet unattempted in prose and rhyme.” Milton was confronted with the problem of rendering all this incomprehensible infinity plausible and credible, and he did it by presenting it symbolically in terms of human experience. The poet himself is careful to stress the point that he has been obliged to place the spiritual on the material plane, and that his pictures are purely symbolical, not literal, since human language must be employed to describe what is beyond human understanding. Once he has thus excused and explained himself, he is quite clear in his mind as to the divisions of Infinite Space. He proceeds about his business with mathematical precision even. His pictures therefore are well-defined. Book II gives the fullest picture of the deep of Chaos the “lower” part of Infinitude, but in words which are at best symbolical. Its appearance is struck off in about half-a dozen lines of the most beautiful poetry. It is ‘a huge, limitless ocean, abyss or quagmire, of universal darkness and lifelessness, wherein are jumbled in blustering confusion the elements of all matter, or rather the crude embryons of all the elements ere as, yet they are distinguishable. Therefore is no light there, not properly Earth, Water, Air, or Fire, but only a vast pulp or welter of unformed matter, in which all these lie tempestuously intermixed.’
Satan’s experience does not belie his fears. He is environed round on all sides with these fighting elements. He is harder “beset than when Argo passed through Bosporus, betwixt the jostling rocks, or when Ulysses on the larboard shunned Charybdis, and by other whirlpool steered.”
It is the hoariest in Infinite Time, having existed coeval with Heaven. From it other worlds have come into being- first Hell, later the Material Universe. Thus it is the womb of Nature and, when these worlds shall again be destroyed, her grave as well. Being illimitable and unbottomed, the way through it is described as long and hard. The turbulence of the elements in their embryonic state is so fierce that there is the danger of an object being crushed and reduced to its atoms, if caught in their welter. Satan fears as much when he describes the difficulties of the adventure in the assembly. It is possible to distinguish, though symbolically, some of the regions of this vast abrupt from the description that Milton gives of Satan’s voyage through it. The resistance of this nameless consistency is felt less by Satan in the first stage of his adventure, when he seems carried upward effortlessly, as in a cloud-chair, buoyed up by the surging smoke from the furnace mouth of Hell. But of, soon he comes upon a region which appears to be a complete vacuity, for “all unawares, fluttering his pennons vain, plumb-down he drops ten thousand fathom deep, and to this hour had been falling,” were it not for an unexpected accident. In this region where Chance rules as governor, he alights upon a “tumultuous cloud”, charged with fire and saltpeter and signed by it, he is shot upward till another accident drops him in a boggy Syrtis, where the flame which seemed to consume him is quenched. Thence it is neither sea, nor good dry land, but bog and cliff, an atmosphere which is at once “strait, rough, dense or rare”, and Satan is obliged to use all his limbs to keep himself adrift. Here are the frontiers of Chaos, but they are yet so far removed from Heaven that it is darkness all round. The last lap of Satan’s journey has yet to be passed through the warring elements, before the extremity verging on Heaven is reached. In this farthest verge, dimly lit by Heaven’s brightness, Chaos has retired, ‘as from her outmost words, a broken foe, with tumult less, and with less hostile din.” Resistance here is very little, and Satan can waft himself as it were on calmer wave in dubious light till he reaches the outermost shell of the Material Universe. Milton divides Infinite Space roughly into two regions, the “upper” being a region of light, Heaven or Empyrean, and the “lower” being a region of darkness, Chaos. The impression we get of Heaven from Book II is that it is “undetermined square or round, with opal towers and battlements adorned, of living sapphire.” It is the bright and boundless region of Light, Freedom, Happiness, and Glory, which the fallen angels regret having lost altogether. It is fortified by impregnable walls, which are closely guarded by ever-wakeful sentries; yet the sacred influence of its light diffuses on the verge of Chaos, so that Satan arriving here in his flight to the world finds it more easy to traverse. In the midst of this region the Deity, though omnipresent, has His immediate and visible dwelling. ‘He is surrounded by a vast population of beings, “the Angels” or the “Sons of God”, who draw near to His throne in worship, derive thence their nurture and their delight, and yet live dispersed through all the ranges and recesses of the region, leading severally their mighty lives and performing the behests of God, but organized into companies, orders, and hierarchies. But of, Heaven at large, or portions of it, are figured as tracts of a celestial Earth, with plain, hill, and valley, wherein the myriads of the Sons of God expatiate, in their two orders of Seraphim and Cherubim, and in their descending ranks as Archangels or Chiefs, Princes of various degrees, and individual Intelligences.’ Such is the stupendous picture that Milton gives us of this hoary deep. Heaven and Chaos divided the Infinite of Space between them at the beginning of time: but soon a need arose for the creation of more worlds. Chaos, the Anarch himself, refers with regret to it, when he speaks of God having made inroads into his domain, and first scooped off a space called Hell, and later “another world hung o’er my realm, linked in a golden chain to that side of Heaven from whence Satan and his legions fell.” The atoms being in a perpetual state of war, their collisions fill the atmosphere with loud noises. Satan’s ears are pealed “with noises loud and ruinous”, more clamorous than those made by the battering engines of Bellona bent on raising a city, or by the Earth when she is torn from her axle by the fall of Heaven. As he approaches the throne of Chaos his ears are assailed by “a universal hubbub wild of stunning souring and voices all confused.” These noises become still only in the confines of Heaven. Hell is pictured as a region shut in by a “convex of fire” and barred by thrice three-folded gates, guarded by two Shapes- Sin and Death. The gates are described in some detail. Three folds are of brass, three of iron, and three of adamantine rock. They are impaled with circling fire and protected by a portcullis which none but Sin could draw up. The gates are fastened by bolts and bars and secured by a lock of a very intricate pattern. Sin has to turn all the intricate wards with her key, and then “on a sudden open fly, with impetuous recoil and jarring sound the infernal doors, and on their hinges grate harsh thunder that the lowest bottom of Erebus shook.” The wide –open gates can give passage to a whole bannered host with its extended wings, horse and chariots ranked in loose array. Out of the mouth of Hell, as from a furnace belch forth, “redounding smoke and ruddy flame.” The ruler of this Infinite Abyss is Chaos. ‘Though the presence of God is there potentially too, it is still, as it were, actually retracted thence, as from a realm unorganized and left to Night and Anarchy; nor do any of the angels wing down into its repulsive obscurities. The crystal floor or wall of Heaven divides them from it; underneath which, and unvisited of light, save what may glimmer through upon its nearer strata, it howls and rages and staggers eternally.’ Of the other world, the Material Universe, there is not much of a description in Book II. The rumour of its creation was long current in Heaven, before it actually came into existence. The moment of its creation arrived when a void was created in Heaven by the fall of Satan and his crew. God then sent His Son forth, and with his golden compasses, he centered one point of them where he stood and turned the other through the obscure profundity around (VII-224-231) (. Thus were marked out, or cut out through the body of Chaos, the limits of the new Universe of Man,-the Starry Universe which to us seems measureless, and the same as infinity itself, but which is really only a beautiful azure sphere or drop, insulated in Chaos, and hung at its topmost point or zenith from the Empyrean. Chaos mentions it as hung by a golden chain from that side of Heaven whence Satan and his legions fell. Hell is described in the book as stretching far and wide beneath Chaos. It is a kind of Antarctic region, distinct from the body of Chaos proper. It is a vast region of fire, sulphurous lake, plain and mountain, and of all forms of fiery and icy torment. In the midst is the bottomless lake of fire on which Satan and his crew were hurled down on their fall. Into it pour the four rivers- “Abhorred Styx, the flood of deadly hate; Sad Acheron of sorrow, black and deep; Cocytus, named of lamentations loud heard on the rueful stream; fierce Phlegethon, whose waves of torrent fire inflame with rage.” Around the lake a vast space of dry land extends, formed of solid fire, with mountains, fens and bogs, full of mineral wealth. On one of these hills Pandemonium has been built entire, which rose out of it, when formed, like an exhalation. The City of Hell is afterwards built round Pandemonium on this dry ground of fire, and the country round the city is broken with rock, and valley, and hill, and plain. Further on, in another concentric band, we catch a glimpse of a desert land, “a frozen continent”, beat with perpetual storms of whirlwind and dire hail, which on firm land thaws not, but gathers heap, and ruin seems of ancient pile.” The damned are brought hither by a “harpy-footed Furies,” and they are make to feel “by turns the bitter change of fierce extremes, extremes by change more fierce, from beds of raging fire to starve in ice their soft ethereal warmth, and there to pine immovable infixed, and frozen round, periods of time, thence hurried back to fire.” Lethe, the river of oblivion, flows round this region, and rolls eternally her watery labyrinth. The damned, on their way to and from the region of solid and liquid fire and this icy desert, have to cross this sound, and, parched and fry as their throats are, the moment they stoop to drink of its waters, they roll back from their lips. Medusa and Gorgonian terror guards the ford, and prevents the sufferers from allaying their thrust. The contours of this region are thus defined by Milton-“dark and dreary vale”, “region dolorous”, “frozen and fiery Alp”, “rocks, caves, lakes, fens, bogs, dens, and shades of death”. The new universe does not consist merely of the Earth, but the entire firmament of planets, stars, etc. in mapping it, Milton adopts the unscientific conception of the universe then current, which had been propounded by the Greek astronomer, Ptolemy, in the second century A.D., and later expanded by Alphonso X king of Castile in the thirteenth century. According to this teaching the Earth was fixed in the centre of the Universe. It was also the centre of a system of concentric Spheres, not solid, but of transparent space , each of which carried with it one of the seven planets, in the following order-the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. Beyond these seven Spheres was an eighth Sphere, containing the Firmament of the fixed Stars. The Crystalline Sphere was a ninth Sphere that was invented to account for the very slow “precision of the equinoxes”, one revolution of which occupied over 25,000 years; and beyond this was the last and tenth Sphere, the only one that was material, being absolutely opaque and impenetrable. This outer shell was called the Primum Mobile, the first moved, because it was believed to be the first created Sphere to be set in motion. Milton’s daring conception is yet further revealed in linking the Material Universe with Hell. Satan had to wing his way through the abortive gulf and run through many risks in doing so. But of, to facilitate the passage to and fro of the human race, on the one hand, and the devils, on the other, a bridge was built across Chaos between Hell and the Material Universe by Sin and Death soon after Man’s fall. It is “of wondrous length,” writes Milton, “from Hell continued, reaching the utmost orb, of this frail world.” There prevailed at the time, indeed, a more accurate conception of the Material Universe, which was formulated by Copernicus, a Polish monk and astronomer of the fifteenth century. It taught that Earth and the other planets revolve about the Sun. Milton was familiar with it also, through his acquaintance with Galileo. But of, in mapping his universe in Paradise Lost, he preferred the Ptolemaic to the Copernican system, because it was more generally known and universally adopted. ‘Yet as to the proportions of this world to the total map Milton dares to be exact. The distance from its nadir or lowest point to the upper boss of hell is exactly equal to its own radius; or in other words, the distance of Hell- gate from Heaven-gate is exactly three radii of the Human or Material Universe.’ Satan once again impresses us as being fit to be an epic hero. At the very outset in Book II, he is described as being seated on a “throne of royal state” in the midst of great splendor. We are told that from his despair he has been “uplifted beyond hope” and that now he is aspiring to rise even higher. He is insatiate to pursue his war against Heaven even though his war is doomed to fail. He tells his comrades that he has not given up Heaven as lost; and he gives them as assurance that they would rise again to Heaven and would, in fact appear to be more glorious and more awful than if they had not suffered and fall. In his second speech Satan again impresses us greatly, this time by offering to undertake a hazardous journey in search of the new world created by God. While none of the other fallen angels comes forward to undertake this arduous and dangerous task. Satan is ready to go. He speaks of the royal powers and the royal privileges which he enjoys as their leader and he therefore believes that it is his duty to undertake the task and that has been proposed. This certainly raises him in our estimation. He is not even prepared to take a companion with him: “This enterprise none shall partake with me.” And how would the Ptolemaic theory stand? In the light of this knowledge how much more absurd it would be that their Stellar Firmament with its immeasurable radius of over 100, 000 light-year “turns about once every twice twelve hours.” And if they found it difficult to believe this of the “great round Earthly Ball,” how would they taken to the discovery that the planet Jupiter, over 1300 times as large, turns round in ten hours? Milton’s cosmography is not entirely imaginary. ‘For the material data which he found necessary to his representation he restored to all manner of sources and to his own invention, employing Scriptural suggestions wherever possible and taking pains to add nothing which would be directly contrary to Holy Writ. It is not to be thought that he offered such details as the causeway from Hell to Earth, the chain by which the visible universe depended from Heaven, or the spheres themselves which encircled the earth and carried the planets and fixed stars, as obligatory to the understanding. They were simply imaginative representations which might or might not correspond to actuality. Sometimes he is deliberately vague, as when he says that Heaven is “undetermined square or round.” Often his concrete detail or measurement is useful only for the moment and defies adoption into the general scheme, as where he says that the distance from Hell to Heaven was three times the distance from the centre of the earth to the pole of the uttermost encircling sphere.’ For these reasons it is misleading to consider the plan of Milton’s Infinite Space as one of his deliberate convictions. One wonders how he would have arranged his ideas in the light of modern discoveries. Distances in the Universe (according to these discoveries), are so enormous that the mile must be discarded entirely as the unit of distance, its place being taken by the light-year, i.e., the distance through which a ray of light, travelling at 186,000 miles a second, is propagated in a year. Yet for star systems and nebulae have been discovered by the camera at the inconceivable distance of 100,000light-years, and there are others still beyond, supposed by some astronomers to be separate universe, but still within the limits of the material creation. What would Milton have bought had he known this? Would not Raphael’s words to Adam (VIII, 110-114) have taken on a new meaning? Both Sin and death are conceived and presented with propriety. Sin which is delectable in commission and hideous in its effect t, is aptly pictured as a woman fair from the waist upward but foul downward, ending her body “in many a scaly fold, voluminous and vast, a serpent armed with mortal sting.” Around her middle cluster a pack of hounds which never cease their barking. They are her offspring, and when disturbed they kennel in her womb, still continuing their howls within her body. They are described as horrid in appearance, and worse than those that afflicted Scylla, or which accompanied the night- hag, when she came riding through the air to dance with the Lapland witches. They feed on her bowls, and are a constant vexation to her. The description of the appearance of Sin reads like a visible embodiment of these words of William Dyer, a contemporary of Milton: “There is more bitterness in sin’s ending that there edger was sweetness in its acting- If you see nothing but good in its commission, you will suffer only woe in its conclusion.” Whereas in Hell-hounds that afflict her within and without, her own offspring, we see the symbolical presentation of the consequences of sin. These are some of the stunning discoveries made by modern astronomy even of that Material Universe, which Milton planned with such perfect simplicity. If these take our breath away, then what must be those undiscovered bourns, Heaven, Chaos and Hell, about which modern science is yet skeptical? Milton’s scheme looks insignificant and incoherent before all this knowledge. Yet what a staggering and stupendous conception he has given it all! The imagination is properly impressed by the infiniteness of the conception, and, with Theseus, in Shakespeare’s play, we are prepared to sympathise with him, and to regard “the best in this kind” to be no more than a shadow, “and the worst no worse, if imagination amend them.” Into a poem which deals very largely with supernatural agents, Milton introduces two shapes, the sinister figure of Sin and the grim and horrid monster, Death, who meets Satan at Hell-gate, and prevents his egress. The adequacy of their portraiture has been praised, but their consistency as allegorical personages has been questioned. Stopford A. Brooke, for example, writes thus: “Death’s image has claimed admiration and justly; but if the lines, which leave him indefinite, yet ‘terrible as Hell’, are sublime, the rest of the allegory of him and of Sin is so definite, so conscious of allegory, that it loses sublimity.” Addison was the first critic to draw attention to the inconsistency of the representation. While admitting that it is a “very beautiful and well-invented allegory,” he added, “I cannot but think that persons of such a chimerical existence are proper actors in an epic poem; therefore, there is not the measure of probability annexed b to them which is requisite in writings of this kind.” Finally, Johnson regarded the allegory as ‘unskilful’’ and complained that it is broken when “Sin and Death stop the journey of Satan, a journey described as real, and when Death offers him battle.” “That Sin and Death should have shown the way”, he continued,” to Hell, might have been allowed: but they cannot facilitate the passage by building a bridge, because the difficulty of Satan’s passage is described as real and sensible. And the bridge ought to be only figurative.” A careful analysis will show that Milton has secured consistency of portraiture, though in the allegorical significance that we read into it, the sublimity of the episode is a little detracted. Death, the grisly horror, which all of us dread, but which cannot be imagined by us in any form, is properly presented as a shape that is shapeless. The vagueness with which it is invested is in perfect keeping with our own conception of it. “Black it stood as Night, Fierce as ten Furies, terrible as Hell, and shook a fearful dart.” Coleridge has well remarked: “The grandest effects of poetry are where the imagination is called forth to produce, not a distinct form, but a strong working of the mind, still offering what is still repelled, and again creating what is again rejected: the result being what the poet wishes to impress, viz., the sublime feeling of the imaginable for the mere images.” Such a stupendous feat of the imagination is this animation of what man dreads most instinctively. The allegory, here, does not consist in the mere personification of an abstraction, but in its relation to Sin. We read in the Bible that the wages of sin is death, and Milton had made Death the offspring of Sin, just as he had made Sin the offspring of evil thought and the consort of the devil. Interrupting the mortal combat of Satan with Death, which would have ended either or both, Sin relates her history. To Satan who has forgotten her, she recounts how she rose from the left side of his head, like Juno, on a day in Heaven, when he was complotting rebellion against God. But of, Milton does not stop with rendering in visual form what merely passes in the mind. He shows also how we become reconciled to sin and finally hardened in it. “Amazement” seized all the heavenly host, she says continuing her narrative to Satan they reconciled in fear, and called her Sin, and held her for a portentous sign. But of, when she had grown familiar, she pleased “the most averse” among them, “and with attractive graces won thee chiefly , who full oft thyself in me thy perfect image viewing becam’st enamoured; and such joy thou took’st with me in secret, that my womb conceived.” The allurements of sin are here well bodied forth, and the whole passage reads like an artist’s picture of the text: “Sin is first pleasing, then it grows easy, then delightful, then frequent, then habitual, then confirmed.” The association with and the commission of sin lead inevitably in the end to hideous death; and so the offspring of Sin in the poem is the grim monster, Death. The final ruin, with all its throes and travail, is befittingly, presented in the picture o Sin’s confinement. Milton completes the picture of Sin and Death by remarking further that just as sin ends in violent death, so death is passionately fond of sinners. Hence he makes Death, as soon as he emerges from the womb of Sin fall lustfully in love with her, and become the father of all that brood of hounds, the affliction of sin, we have noticed above. The poet seals their permanent union in the words he places on the lips of Sin, that Death would have destroyed her. Death shall cease when Sin becomes extinct. The destruction of the one involves the ruin of the other. Milton thus a perfect picture of the origin of sin in the mind of man, his being hardened in it, the evil consequences that follow, and the violent end to which it finally leads him. The adequacy of the portraiture and its vividness cannot be doubted. But of, while genesis of sin is sublime enough, its later history is full of such gruesome details that it tends to detract from loftiness. It cannot but be otherwise, since there is nothing elevated in the consanguinity of Sin and death. The representation, however, is hideous enough and impressive.
The characters of sin and death are thus firmly drawn, once their reality is granted, all their deeds become plausible; there is nothing inconsistent in them, as Dr. Johnson contended. It is but natural that Death, the shadowy giant, should bar Satan’s way, and offer to fight him, for death makes no distinction between saint and sinner. Sin does well to remind Satan that Death’s dart is mortal, that he is unconquerable except by him “who rules above”. Neither is it strange that Sin should be the first to fall a victim to Satan’s temptation. He offers to bring her to the place “where thou and Death shall dwell at ease, and up and down unseen wing silently the buxom air, embalmed with odours,” and she jumps at the offer, while death, the gourmand, smacks his greedy lips in joyous anticipation of the goodly feast he shall soon have. Sin hastens to open the three-folded gates; the portcullis slides to her touch, her key swiftly turns the intricate wards, and every belt and bar of massy iron or solid rock unfasten with ease. There is no inconsistency either in these persons quickly spanning the distance from Chaos to the Earth by a bridge, for they are eager to get into the new habitation. Thus Milton’s presentation of these two characters doesnot impinge rudely upon our credulity. On the other hand, they are satisfying portraits of the two deadly evils of this world.
He takes the fallen angels on an ego trip when he tells them that Hell will not be able to contain them because of their angelic nature. At the same time pandering to their vanity he tells them that after rising to Heaven again, they will never have to fear a second fall. And he establishes his supremacy over them by asserting that he has risen to his high position not only through his own merit but also because he deserved this position according to “the fixed laws of Heaven.” In order not to rub the fallen angels on the wrong side he at the same time tells them that they have elected him as their leader of their own, “free choice”. Milton makes use of Beelzebub to bring out some of the more repulsive facets of Satan’s character. Beelzebub rejects Moloch’s idea of an open war and goes all out in support of a plan aimed at confounding the race of mankind in one root and at mingling and involving Earth with Hell to spite the great creator. To highlight Satan’s craftiness Milton tells us that such a wicked plan could only emanate from “the author of all ill.” By making Beelzebub come forward with the proposal, Satan wants some devilishness of the scheme to rub on Beelzebub’s shoulders so that Satan can comparatively shine in a better light. Every word that Satan utters is loaded with meaning. “O Progeny of Heaven” he calls the fallen angels in his second address to them hoping against hope that their expulsion from Heaven will not make a dent on them. He can almost congratulate himself on the success he has achieved for the fallen angels bow to him “with awful reverence” and extol him “equal to the highest in Heaven”. Another aspect of his character is brought out in his dealings with Sin and Death. At first Satan tried his bluff and bluster on Death but when he realized that death was not unbearable, he pragmatically came to terms with them. He tactfully solicits the help of Chaos to carry him to the new world where he hopes to plan his revenge on god. In depicting Satan’s character, Milton has deliberately not indicated whether the logical flaws in Satan’s opening speech are the result of a conscious effort to soothe his followers or due to a genuine self delusion. According to one critic, the utterances of Moloch, Belial, Mammon and Beelzebub represent not merely individual contributions to a debate but also a train of thoughts which passes through the mind of Satan. Macallum shows up the inconsistencies in Satan’s speech and the change it reveals in his character. There is a contrast and a touch of duplicity between what Satan says when he is alone with his second in command, Beelzebub, and what he says when he is speaking in public. Milton brings this out in a very subtle manner showing clearly Satan’s power of double think. At one moment the leader of the fallen angels is convinced that his fallen angels are invincible while at the same time he accepts that constant vigilance is necessary to prevent its overthrow. Another example of his double think is seen in the ability of the fallen angels to strike back at God. His confident words to his fallen angels have a veneer of deception. Quite often one gets the feeling that Satan becomes a victim of his own propaganda and it is difficult to tell whether he is speaking out of conviction or he becomes a victim of his deceit. Milton’s portrayal of Satan is in conformity with the progress of the action ion the epic. In the early scenes of Book II Satan is portrayed as a defiant leader shedding his charisma on the fallen angels. As the epic advances, a gradual change overtakes Satan as he begins his downward slide from the moments of high grandeur of the early scenes. As Satan is caught in the work of his own self-destruction, the effects of his fall becomes evident as the epic moves to its inevitable conclusion. “Beyond thus high, insatiate to pursue Vain war with Heaven; and, by success untaught, ‘’
Many eminent critics of the twentieth century have explained the hollowness of the romantic attitude towards the character of Satan that was held in the nineteenth century.
Milton has endowed Satan with all the traits of double think and double speak. In fact this comes so naturally to Satan that one could look upon him as faithful representative of the politicians of our own day. He is cast in this mould and his very first utterance as he opens the debate is typical of him. He addresses the fallen angels as ‘powers and dominions’, ‘deities of Heaven’. The address is typical of his egoism. He panders to the vanity of the fallen angels by addressing them with the same attributes that they once possessed. He is clever enough to adopt this posture to stress the fact that there has been no change in their status even though they have been expelled from Heaven. Similarly, when Satan goes on to argue that Hell will be unable to hold them because of their angelic nature, the assumption is that they remain heavenly although expelled from Heaven, which seems somewhat unrealistic. When he continues with the comment that when they do rise, they will be more glorious than if they had fallen one notices that Satan is confusing military glory with the true glory of Heaven. It has been pointed out very clearly that the speech of Satan is full of inconsistencies and his character has undergone a major change, change for the worse. Alan Rudrum has analysed Satan’s opening speech in Book II: “The debate is opened by Satan, seated as Chairman ‘high on a throne of royal state’. The tone and substance of his speech is foreshadowed in the very first line, in which he addresses his colleagues as ‘powers and dominions’ deities of Heaven.’ This in itself contains no direct statement, but the implication is that no radical change has occurred as a result of their rebellion and defeat at the hands of God. It is as futile as if a number of demoted officers were to agree that among themselves they should keep up the pretence of retaining their former rank, a comforting gesture but ultimately pointless because they are out of touch with reality.” We cannot rebel against a government and at the same time derive our position among our followers from the dignity we once held within it. Satan seems on surer ground in pointing out that no one will envy him his leadership in Hell because leadership there involves pre-eminence in suffering, but note the argument he develops from this. He says that as no one in Hell will envy him his position, there will be unity and strength among the fallen angels, and they will therefore, be more likely to succeed in claiming their ‘just’ inheritance than if their initial rebellion had been successful. From this it seems natural for him to go on to reassert his position of leadership among the fallen angels, and we certainly concede that he is audacious when we hear him deriving his leadership from the ‘fixed laws against which he had rebelled. It is difficult to decide whether the logical flaws in Satan’s opening speech are the result of a conscious attempt to deceive his followers or due to genuine self-delusion. At all events, Satan’s recklessness, and his apparent inability to face facts are carried over into Moloch’s speech, which immediately follows. One critic has usefully suggested that the utterance of Moloch, Belial, Mammon and Beelzebub represent not merely individual contributions to a debate, but also a train of thought which passes through the mind of Satan. Between them they canvass all possibilities but repentance, and the conclusion they arrive at, given their initial assumptions, is the only feasible one. Revenge, on some terms, they must have and as they cannot hurt God directly they will injure man instead. Quite apart from the fact that there is no evidence that their initial failure was due to dissensions within the ranks, this is simply ‘double think’- unless we concede that God has treated them unfairly, had displaced them from a ‘just inheritance’, unless in fact we can see ground for agreeing that their rebellion had been justified. Probably Satan’s speech should be read as a ‘morale booster’ and the true hopelessness of the matter can be gauged from its inaccuracy as an analysis of the situation. It will emerge later that Satan has a different idea in mind, but for the moment he wants his followed to discuss their reascent to Heaven, and invites their opinions as to whether open war or covert guile, will best bring this about. Satan has already chalked the mode of revenge he will adopt in his war against God but he wants to make the fallen angels believe that he is being guided by them in charting out their future course of action. Very adroitly he says,” who can advise may speak” as he invites their opinions to wage open war or convert guile to bring about the objectives. He doesnot utter an unnecessary word but he ensures that what he says goes home. Like one born to leadership he is quick to point out that no one will envy him his leadership he is quick to point out that no one will envy him his leadership in Hell because he would be exposed to much greater suffering from God than any one of them. On the other hand, they had their just inheritance to achieve if they adopted the right means. Macallum has drawn our attention to the inconsistencies in Satan’s speech in Book II and the change it reveals in his character. The contrast between what Satan says when he is alone with his second in command, Beelzebub, and what he says when he is speaking in public draws attention to this duplicity. He is, after all, the father of lies. Milton’s treatment of satanic description is extremely subtle and deserves careful attention. Satan possesses the capacity that George Orwell, in his study of totalitarianism in 1984 described as the power of ‘double think’- the power of entertaining two contradictory opinions at the same time. For example, the ideal member of the ruling class is convinced in part of his mind that his party is invincible and omniscient, while with another part of his mind he recognizes that constant vigilance is necessary to prevent its overthrow. In a similar manner Satan both does and doesnot believe in the ability of his army to strike back against God. His encouraging words to his troops are half deception. Like many dictators he shows a tendency to believe his own propaganda and it is impossible to distinguish clearly at any given moment between his real convictions and the sophistry by which he controls his followers. In cutting himself off from God, Satan has rejected the sources of reason and consequently he loses his grip on reality.
Although he still has a few moments of grandeur left, the general progress of his development is downward. Milton shows us Satan’s admirable qualities first, then explores the manner in which his denial of God’s perverts his virtues and turns his power into weakness.
A further word has to be said on the paradoxical view that Satan is the hero of Paradise Lost. This appears true only if we accept the traditional epic idea of the hero as a great warrior and leader. But of, Milton as he stresses everywhere in the poem, had a very different idea of the heroic. The hero as martyr, who suffers patiently and refuses to the death to renounce hi God, is the central idea of Paradise Regained and Samson Agonistes as well as of Paradise Lost. His idea of the heroic, along with his own heroic temper, is what puts Milton among the great poets of the world. Undoubtedly Milton found inspiration for the figures of Sin and Death in a biblical passage: “Thus when lust hath conceived, it bringeth forth sin, and sin when it is finished, bringeth forth dead”. From this cryptic statement Milton has visualized and etched the allegorical figures of Sin and death. Both are drawn with a wealth of detail. Sin is part woman, part serpent while Death a shadowy monarch who wields a dreadful dart, is made brightening by reason of his lack of clear and solid shape. Milton has painted both of them with lurid colours, specially their origin. Sin and Death are no mere decorative pieces in this epic poem. Through their presence and their allegory the poet drives home the point that evil turns back on itself endlessly repeating the same sterile and self-destructive acts. He adds a further significance to their characters by his description. Death is shown to be something awful and mysterious. He doesnot depict any details but leaves the readers with a vague terrifying impression of a misty, shadowy but nevertheless a majestic presence. And grace that won who saw to wish her stay, Rose, and went forth among her fruits and flowers, To visit how they prospered, bud and bloom, Her nursery; they at her coming sprung, And, touched by her fair tendance, gladlier grew. This is the best example of what Macaulay calls “the dim intimations of Milton”. He begins by calling Death a shape, then he qualifies this by saying that it had no shape- a shapeless shape. Then he adds that this shapeless shape could not be called a substance or shadow. He doesnot speak of his head or his crown but what seemed his head had on-the likeness of a kingly crown. The impact of the description is black and menacing and becomes the more sinister because it just a shadow. The portrait drawn by Milton of sin is ugliness personified. The poet has used the female form to represent Sin and one can rightly call it Milton’s masterpiece of filth. Sin describes how she sprang fully grown from the brow of Satan at the moment of his rebellion in Heaven. Satan has an incestuous relationship with her. She is mistress as well as daughter and from this union is born death, so aptly labeled by Milton as “this odious offspring”. The incestuous relationship continues with Death becoming the lover of his parent. His progeny are the yelling monsters that continuously torment their mother. Alterbury in a letter to Pope challenged to show in Homer anything equal to the allegory of Sin and Death. On the other hand Johnson believes that “this unskillful allegory appears to me one of the greatest faults of the poem.” Hanford describes the episodes as loathsome but believes it has a purpose by making us aware of the real ugliness of Sin and Death. Macaffery suggests that Sin and Death inhabit a necessary borderline between myth and allegory, “between a world where physical and spiritual forces are identical and a world where spiritual force is merely indicated by physical.” Summer is happy about the characterisation specially as it places Satan in perspective and establishes the necessary relation in the epic between the comic, the heroic and the tragic. But well thou comest Before thy fellows, ambitious to win From me some plume, that thy success may show Destruction to the rest: Satan’s heroism, like his outward luster, grows less dazzling as the action proceeds: the general is not as impressive a figure as the defiant individualistic of the first scene. Milton doesnot treat Satan as a static figure; on the contrary Satan is constantly changing because he is caught in a process of self destruction. The effects of his fall are made increasingly evident in the course of the action. Milton cleverly weaves a web of intrigue between Sin, Death and Satan when they confront each other at the gates of Hell. As Sin sees a confrontation between Satan Death building up, she intervenes to stop the clash. She then discloses the relationship between Satan and Death and impresses on both the futility of their mutual antagonisms. Sin counts on Satan to tackle her to a new world of bliss and pleasure in his company and with this hope she opens the gates of Hell to let Satan go out. In assessing the part of Sin and Death in the poem we have to accept that they are integral to the poem. By depicting them in the most grotesque of forms Milton tries to project the moral purpose of the whole episode. By placing them in Hell he suggests that they rightly belong there. The double incest shown between father and daughter and son and mother makes Sin and Death all the more horrifying and repulsive. Such an impact could only be conveyed through an allegory and Milton has done just that. It must be remembered that Paradise Lost even if is close to the truth, is not literally true and is at the most a symbolic poem. Milton’s portrayal of Sin and Death has led to sharp differences among his critics. One set of critics has led to sharp differences among his critics. One set of critics led by Addison is of the view that though the allegorical descriptions are arresting enough, the two figures look out of place in the epic. He raises doubts whether persons of such chimerical existence are proper actors in an epic poem. By throwing magic herbs into the sea where Circe was bathing, the witch transformed Scylla’s body from the waist down into a mass of barking dogs.
It is through symbolism that Milton wishes to convey the horror of the encounter between Satan and Sin and Death. Hell has become the abode of the fallen angels. The introduction of Sin and Death and their encounter with Satan at the gates of Hell carries the epic forward. The figure of Sin, half-woman and half-serpent with a number of barking dogs at her waist and creeping into her womb whenever they like has predecessors in Elizabethan poetry. Milton also had another model before him. This was Spenser’s description of Error- half a horrible serpent and half a woman’s shape. Similarly Milton was beholden for his description of Death to similar earlier descriptions. However, the difference is that Milton’s description evokes terror and alarm by his description of a shadowy nothing. But of, Milton does transcend the indistinct image when he describes it as brandishing a dreadful dart just as the serpent in the lower half of Sin is described as being armed with a deadly sting. Milton’s model for Sin was the sea nymph Scylla after her transformation by the witch Circe. His next argument is that of a military strategist. As a debater, he forestalls the objection that ascent to the Empyrean on their ruinous expedition, may be difficult. But for, no! if they bethink them how their descent had been difficult when they fell, they can naturally infer that ascent is their proper motion. Let them not doubt, therefore, their ability to soar back to Heaven. The Council in Hell has correctly been described as a superhuman parliamentary debate, as majestic in eloquence as it is momentous in the consequences involved. Milton brings to bear upon the account a lifelong study of statesmanship and oratory in the leaders of the Revolution. His council is a magnified image of those human deliberations on which the fates of nations hang. Besides, Milton brought to his task his own mastery in the art of dialectic which dates from his Cambridge days, when his degree depended on his ability to argue both sides of a question. Satan has called his council to consider how best they may revenge themselves on the Almighty, whether by open war or convert guile. But of, Satan does not only propound the question; it is his will that dominates secretly the assembly. ‘Individuals may voice their convictions and display their passions, each with a type of eloquence appropriate to his personal character and temper, but the ultimately policy is predetermined.’ Four of the chiefs express their views, each in his own characteristic manner, but it is the last, Beelzebub, who unfolds the master’s mind. His final argument shows that contempt of danger which would enable a commander to lead his forces to victory. He doesnot allow the fear of worse consequences to daunt him from his war path. What can be worse than their present anguish? he asks. The worst can only be annihilation, and that were “happier far than miserable to have eternal being.” But at, can they ever cease to be? He has heard it said in some quarters that their substance is eternal, and if thus there is no fear of annihilation, there can be no fear too of a worse state than the present, since “we are at worst on this side nothing.” Their present strength then is equal to wage war Heaven; let them rise, therefore, and if they do not gain a victory, they shall have the satisfaction at least of revenge. Moloch, the belligerent type, the personification of pure and unalloyed hatred of the Almighty, is of the die-hard cast. Deeming himself equal in strength with the almighty, and indifferent even to his existence if he should be regarded less, he advises open war, with all the bluntness and outspokenness of a Colonel. Unskilled in tricks himself, he is impatient with those who those who would sit and contrieve in Hell’s dungeon, suffering all the pangs which God’s tyranny can inflict on them. Theirs is the courage to do, he tells them, and therefore let them arm themselves, even with hell flames and tortures, the weapons of destruction invented by their enemy, and point them against himself. Let the noise of his thunder be met by the noise of infernal thunder; his lightning be opposed with black fire from Hell, and His very throne be surrounded by hell-fire and sulphurous flames. Thus in the hectic fury of his vindictive hate, he draws a picture of the destruction upon which he is bent. Moloch’s speech is impetuous and fiery, and well may it have been the utterance of an Ironside commander in the councils of Oliver Cromwell. It may be worthwhile to observe,” wrote Addison, “that Milton has represented this violent impetuous spirit, who is hurried on by such precipitate passions, as the first that rises in the assembly to give his opinion upon their present posture of affairs. Accordingly he declares himself abrupt for war, and appears incensed at his companions for losing so much time as to deliberate upon it. All his sentiments are rash, audacious, and desperate such as that of arming themselves with tortures and turning their punishments upon Him who in inflicted them. His preferring annihilation to shame or misery is also highly suitable to his character, as the comfort he draws from their disturbing the peace of Heaven, that if it be not victory is revenge, is a sentiment truly diabolical, and becoming the bitterness of this implacable spirit.”
Belial’s arguments partake of his nature. Gifted with a smooth tongue that “could make the worse appear the better reason,” he delivers a backhanded blow at Moloch. He tells the assembly that he would himself be much for open war, if what has been urged the main reason for it, itself doesnot dissuade him most. They have been told that even if they cannot be victorious, their vindictiveness yet can be satisfied. But of, he asks, what vengeance can possibly be? The towers of Heaven are impregnable, being constantly guarded by armed angels. There is no hope of intimidating them either, for quite dauntlessly they scout far into the regions of Chaos. Or, were it possible for them to approach Heaven, batter its strong walls, and force their resistless way in, and with Hell-flames and black fire attempt to obscure the glory of “Heaven’s purest light,” still God’s mould being of ethereal substance, it can never be stained, and by own special virtues it will expel all baser fire and contamination. Thus, what can be left for the rebellious angels except blank despair? Revenge, therefore, is out of the question.
Belial, the next to rise after Moloch, is in every respect his antithesis. While Moloch is essentially a spirit of action, Belial is chiefly a spirit of inactivity. While Moloch has a contempt of travail and danger, Belial can hardly think of them without a tremor passing through his frame, for he is essentially slothful and sensual. While Moloch’s mind is wholly refractory and bellicose, Belial’s is sometimes speculative full of those “thoughts that wander through eternity.” Finally while Moloch is curt and plain-spoken, Belial is specious and artful. Moloch is the aggressive militarist, Belial the meek pacifist. Mammon’s speech reminds one of the pioneers and gold diggers who set out of England in the seventeenth century to distant lands and helped incidentally to fling wide the Empire of their country. His plea is the typical gold-digger’s plea; his dream is to make an El Dorado of Hell. Doubtless there must have been money-grabbers in the Long Parliament, who helped Charles I to raise his ship-money, and other obnoxious taxes. Mammon must have been drawn from one of them. There are financiers and stock-brokers today who could vie with Mammon in speculation. They are of true descent. His next argument exposes the fallacy in the hope of annihilation which Moloch had held out as a cure in their present distress. Quite pleasant- humouredly, Belial ridicules the notion, for no one, however great his then suffering may be, would ever like to be deprived of his intellectual state, with all those thoughts that wander through eternity, and wish to be swallowed up and lost in obscure extinction. Even if such an undesirable state is devoutly to be wished for, by any freak of imagination, it is doubtful whether God can give it to them, or even if He can, whether He would. For, in the first place, being immortal angels, whether God can extinguish them totally is uncertain, but, for his part, he is more than certain that he would never destroy them. When he first routed them and drove them into Hell, he consigned them to eternal suffering. Sure he will not deflect from His purpose and give them the annihilation which they so eagerly for. The third argument of Belial is a further refutation of Moloch. He had said that their sufferings were already the worst and they had nothing more to fear, if annihilation were impossible. But of, is it true that what they are going through is the worst? Let them examine their present condition. They have been permitted to rise from the lake of burning fire; they have recovered from their stupor, they have built Pandemonium, and they are now sitting in deliberate council. This, surely, is not the worst than can happen to them. They may have been worse than what they are now, if they had lain, for instance, chained to the lake of liquid fire, or, if worse tortures had been inflicted on them. That would have been the worst, and they may reasonably dread them yet. Having thus quashed his adversary’s arguments, Belial next proceeds to formulate his plan. His answers to Moloch show a true understanding of the current state of affairs, though they have all been inspired by his love of slothful ease, his passion for existence, and his cowardly fear of direr consequences. His plan too, partakes of the same characteristics of his nature. A war on Heaven can have only one of two objects-either to unseat God from His throne, or to regain their lost possessions. The first is a very remote possibility, and is never likely to happen, unless irrevocable Fate should give up its sway to fickle Chance, and Chaos judge the strife. If Heaven’s king cannot be unseated, it is vain to hope for the reconquest of their possessions; for without subduing Heaven’s king what authority can the fallen angels exercise over Him? But of, here Mammon anticipates another alternative. If they submit (some may argue) and agree to be obedient and loyal, God may publish grace and pardon them all. But of, Mammon would not entertain the idea for a moment. How can they be ever so base as to stand humbly in His presence, render implicit obedience to His commandments, and sing under compulsion songs and hymns in His praise, who has recently been their enemy, and who has lorded it over them in the fashion they are now groaning under? This is all that they can expect in Heaven, and by no amount of sophistry, can that irksome task be called delightful. Let them reflect on the magnitude of this irksomeness when they have to submit vilely to this laudation of One whom they hate all though eternity. So Mammon would not advise them to continue their vassalage in Heaven, howsoever obtained. Rather, let them seek their good in Hell itself; let them make the best use of their advantages, free and accountable to none, preferring sturdy independence to slavish yoke in Heaven. And if therein they learn by patient labour and hard endurance to create great things out of small, to convert hurtful things into useful, and turn adverse circumstances into prosperous, then their greatness would be more conspicuous. Perhaps they fear the darkness of Hell: and here Mammon’s answer to the objection is specious. Very often, he says, Heaven’s king has been founds to have obscured Himself in thick and dark clouds, from which He gathered His thunderbolts to scourge His enemies with. “As He our darkness, cannot we His light imitate when we please?” is his argument. That argument disposed of, Mammon turns to his constructive plan. In the First Book of Paradise Lost we have been told that even while in Heaven, instead of Mammon’s gaze being occupied with the vision Beatific, he had bent his looks downward admiring the golden floor. No wonder then that his thoughts now fly to the rich mineral wealth in Hell, proof of which had already been given, when Pandemonium was built. He now reminds them about the manifold riches of the place and their own mining and architectural skill. They can build an empire here, which shall be the envy of Heaven. Besides, as Belial has suggested, there is every likelihood of their being acclimatised in course of time to their surroundings. “Our temper may change into their temper.” So taking everything into consideration, it is much better to settle down in peace in Hell, and devise schemes and measures for the improvement of their lot than plot open or covert war in vain. Mammon follows next, and true to his name he is acquisitive more than aggressive. He is the type of the rapacious Imperialist, in the days when Imperialism was yet in its infancy in England. He begins by answering both Moloch and Belial; he is inclined to agree more with the latter than the former, and finally builds his future plan on Belial’s suggestion. Thus the great debate ends, and Milton carefully distinguishes between the types of statesmanship presented by Moloch, Belial, Mammon and Beelzebub. The first is militant and aggressive, the second suave and submissive, the third smug and acquisitive, while the last is resourceful and subtle. Milton must have had prototypes of them in actual life, both among the Royalists and the Puritans, and he has made admirable use of his first hand knowledge of parliamentary debates, as well as his study in classical oratory and his skill in his own University exercises in the speeches he has assigned to them. Addison’s note on this character is instructive. “Beelzebub,” he wrote, “who is reckoned the second in dignity that fell, and is, the First Book, the second that awakens out of the trance, and confers with Satan upon the situation of their affairs, maintains his rank in the Second Book as well. There is a wonderful majesty described in his rising up to speak. He acts as a kind of moderator between the two opposing parties, and proposes a third undertaking which the whole assembly gives in to. The motion he makes of detaching one of their body in search of a new world is grounded upon a project devised by Satan, and curiously proposed by him in the First Book, the project upon which the whole poem turns; as also that the prince of the fallen angels was the only proper person to give it birth, and that the next to him in dignity was the fittest to second and support it.” War, then, open, or secret, is wholly out of picture: for the Almighty is equally wise to frustrate their secret plans as He is strong to defeat their open designs. But at, neither does Belial insinuate that they shall acquiesce in their present slavish condition. He only wishes to suggest that this is much better than bringing disasters upon themselves by an open or secret war. Further there are a number of considerations which should weigh with them in agreeing with their lot. First, it is Fate (the argument of weakling) that has ordained that they should live in Hell. If they had been wise, they could have foreseen this before they broke out in open rebellion against the Almighty. It is ridiculous that those who had dared to defy Fate then, should now show fear in suffering the inevitable consequences. To abide in Hell is their doom. But of, their punishment may be reduced by their patient sufferance. This is the second consideration. In time their conduct “may much remit His anger”, and, perhaps, thus far removed, finding them to be inoffensive, and satisfied that He has punished enough, He may slacken the rage of His fury. A third consideration is that their own purer essence may either overcome their torments. Or by long endurance and custom they may get used to them, and not feel their scourge. Finally, there is the hope of what the never-ending flight of future days may bring the chance of a better life than the present which though not happy, is far from being the worst that can be endured. His counsel, therefore, is for meek acquiescence in their presence lot. Belial, the glib talker, the smooth- tongued trimmer, presents the type of conservative statesmanship, which is cultured, self sufficient, and shows a love of all the good things of life. He is the type which Shakespeare has drawn in the courtier with his parmaceti, or some scented salve or other, who meets the fiery Hotspur on the battlefield. His is the religion of ‘cultivated inaction, making its believer refuse to lend a hand at uprooting the define evils on all sides of us, and filling him with antipathy against the reforms and reformers which try to extirpate them’. Perhaps Milton has drawn the character from the many cavaliers who thronged the court of Charles I or Charles II. His speech falls into four parts. In the first he ridicules Mammon’s suggestion; in the second he answers Belial and Moloch’s pleas: in the third he makes his own proposal, and finding it generally approved, in the final part, he plans its practical operation. As for the proposition of war, there would not be any need for them to invade Heaven’s walls and force their way in for those walls are in no fear of assault or siege. Then why should they not seek some easier means of wrecking their vengeance on God? Then turning to the proposition for peace, he reminds his audience that no terms of peace have either been offered or sought. As far he can see no peace would be given to them: instead severe custody, stripes and bitter punishment only. In the same way they cannot return any honourable terms of peace themselves to Heaven; instead, enmity and hatred as they lie in their power, and schemes which would not allow their Torturer to rejoice in what He has inflicted upon His enemies. Mammon’s speech, as may be expected, wins the approval of the assembly. ‘Public opinion seems to be dangerously drifting in a direction contrary to the intention of Satan, when Beelzebub , the type of subservient politician, as responsive to the purpose of his master as badness could desire, rise clad in the aspect of impressive statesmanship to stem the tide.’ First, to stem the tide of the murmur of approval which had greeted Mammon, Beelzebub makes capital out of it by turning it into pointed ridicule. He asks the angels whether they desire to be addressed as the “off-spring of Heaven” or, merely as the “Princes of Hell”, for what should he infer from their applause of Mammon’s speech? It indicates their longing to continue in Hell and build an Empire in emulation of Heaven. A likely thing indeed, he comments sarcastically, for, he wonders whether they are not dreaming, having completely forgotten that Hell has not been intended as a place of security for them to plot against Him. No! The Almighty has intended them to dwell in it in strictest bondage as His chosen victims. Of this there can be no doubt: for whatever they may do, God will reign supreme both in Heaven and in Hell, and never allow any diminution of His authority anywhere. But at, while He rules His own angels in Heaven mildly and benevolently, He will rule them in Hell with an iron hand. Therefore no good can ever come out of their schemes of war and peace. Their last revolt has settled their fate, which they should remain out of Heaven. Having thus disposed of the arguments of Mammon, Belial and Moloch, Beelzebub introduces into the discussion a new fact, craftily held back till the progress of the debate demanded it. The assembly’s approval of Mammon’s plan clearly showed that they were for peace and no war. On this foundation of peace, and the hope of a different prosperity, Beelzebub builds his plan.
With subtle craft he reminds them of a rumour current in Heaven, when they had been its denizens, of a new place about to be created- the happy seat of a new race called Man, who though less in splendor than the angels, would be more favoured of God. That the rumour is not unfounded is certain, for they will recollect how God promised it as His will, and confirmed it by “an oath that shook Heaven’s whole circumference.” They should now turn their thoughts to this new world and to its inhabitant. They should discover his nature, his strength and his weakness, and consider how best he may be seduced and tempted to break from his allegiance to God. Though Heaven may be guarded well, and, therefore, in-accessible, that new world may have been left to the defence of its new race. Thither they shall go, and find out means of destroying him, and driving him from his habitation, as they unavailing, they can atleast seduce him and make him break his faith with God. “This would surpass common revenge, and interrupt God’s joy in our confusion, and our joy uprise in His disturbance.”
For God may repent what he has done, and abolish His own works. This is Beelzebub’s plan, and it is for them to accept or reject it. He tactfully pauses for their response. The most interesting character in the first two books of Paradise Lost, and one who most engages our attention, is Satan. He appears as ‘a great and sublime figure, the heroic antagonist of God, the great fiend who, in spite of the hopelessness of conflict with that power “whom thunder hath made greater,” continues to fascinate us and compel our admiration.’ The technical form which Milton cast his theme required that he should present his characters on a lofty scale. Besides Satan was an Archangel, who, at the commencement of the poem, had only recently transgressed, and whose “form had not yet lost all her original brightness; he had still left in him all those supramundane virtues of a “fixed mind”, an “unconquerable will”, and a “courage never to submit or yield”. Milton was obliged to lay on these heroic qualities rather thickly in order to distinguish his antagonist from the “puny race of mankind.” Yet there haven critics who, carried away by the weight and emphasis attached to these qualities, have regarded Satan as the hero of the poem. Some have even pretended to see a certain political affinity between Satan and Milton. A more recent critic, Denis Saurat, set out to prove elaborately how Satan and Milton were personal enemies and how the poet took a keen delight in visiting acrimonious vengeance upon his foe. Nay, Milton, according to this critic, “had Satan in him and wanted to drive him out. He had felt passion, pride and sensuality. The deep pleasure he takes in his creation of Satan is the joy…peculiar to the artist… hence the strange monster Satan. Whereas inferior artists build their monsters artificially, Milton takes his, living and warm with his own life, out of himself.” But at, these criticisms hit beside the mark. Satan’s heroism may lie in his daring and his dauntlessness, in his willingness to undertake perilous risks and his readiness to go through them; but the motive behind them all is personal ambition, in the gratification of which he displays qualities which are far from heroic- a subtle and crafty mind, and a specious and hypocritical behaviour. Beelzebub had been merely the willing tool to put forth the plan: he had been content to be his Master’s Voice. The assembly, whether they recognized it as the plan of the master or not, agree to it unanimously. Beelzebub mightily pleased congratulates them on the wisdom of their choice, and commends its virtue further. It would lift them up from Hell, he continues, and place them much nearer their ancient seat of happiness, perhaps in the very vicinity of Heaven and within the circle of its golden light. Thus much conciliation for Belial and Mammon! And being in such close vicinity to Heaven, with timely excursions, they may even get access into Heaven, without hazarding a war. So much palliation for Moloch! But of, they should decide first whom they shall send on this dangerous expedition, for full of dangers it show. Their leader must be sufficiently brave to ransack the infinite the new world. Mere strength alone would not suffice, though it is highly the spies and sentries of Heaven. He would have need of all his resourcefulness. Let the assembly choose such a spirit. Needless to say that none was either proposed or volunteered. Satan alone came forward “whom now transcendent glory raised above his fellows,” and he undertook the heroic adventure. The physical sports they engaged in, whether on the plain or in the air, were like the Olympian or Pythian games of the Greeks. Some rode their fiery steeds, or engaged in chariot races, being very careful to narrow their circuit closer and closer so that they might traverse the least distance, and at the same time very cautious not to touch the stone barriers lest they should be dashed against them to pieces. A few occupied themselves in military drill and feats of war. In this they resembled the aery champions whom superstition imagined to appear in the clouds in the van of their armies, and with feats of arms cause the entire welkin to burn from either end of heaven. Another band, wild with hellish rage at their acute sufferings, tore up rocks and hills, and hurled them down in great fury, or rode the air in as whirlwind. In this they resembled the great Hercules, who returning victorious from Aechalia, was roused to the bitterest rage by his wife, and in his agony tore up the Thessalian pines, and hurled Lichas himself into the Euboic Sea. The milder and the more cultured among the angels disported themselves differently. Some among them gathered in a silent valley and turned troubadours. They sang of their heroic deeds in “notes angelical to many a harp.” Their songs were not unmixed with their complaints, that destiny have subjected them to become the slaves of Force or Chance. The subject matter of those songs was no doubt biased, but their harmony was divine. It suspended Hell, and ravished all the listening multitude. Another group sat on a retired hill, and discussed sweetly on subjects of great import and dignity, such as Providence, Foreknowledge, Will, Fixed Fate, and absolutely Foreknowledge. They initiated the chief subjects of speculation and anticipated the main trends of all secular philosophy. But of, in their attempts to reconcile the irreconcilable, they lost themselves in strange mazes of reasoning and discourse. They argued at length on the abstract doctrines of good and evil, of happiness and misery, of passion and apathy, and of glory and shame. It was all vain wisdom and false philosophy; still it had power to charm them all out of their pain and distract them from their misery. Milton is careful at this stage to point out the plan was not out of Beelzebub’s invention, for whence but from “the author of all ill”, could a plan so diabolic and so fraught with mischief for the human race issue. Porter: “Lechery, sir, it provokes, and unprovokes: it provokes the desire, but it takes away the performance. Therefore much drink may be said to be an equivocator with lechery: it makes him, mars him; it sets him on, and it takes him off; it persuades him and disheartens him, makes him stand to and not stand to.”” The fallen angels in Hell after the departure of Satan on his heroic adventure of the discovery of the new world and the seduction of its sole inhabitant amused themselves in a variety of ways. In describing their diversions, Milton draws freely from the epic recreations of classical heroes as they are described both by Homer and Virgil. The lower sort of angels indulged in physical sports, the higher in song and poetry, the noblest of all in philosophical discourse. The adventurous were bent on exploration and discovery. As always, their doings are patterns and types of the varied activities of men. Another set of rebellious angels interested themselves in exploration. In bold and adventurous march they tried to discover whether any part of that dismal habitation was more endurable than the burning lake, or the plain of solid fire. They discovered the sources of the Styx, Acheron, Phlegethon and Cocytus, the four rivers of Hell, which poured waters into the lake of fire. They also discovered the river Lethe, which flowed far away from them, and the region it bounded , the frozen continent, to which the demand were brought periodically to undergo its icy torment. Thus, all the endeavours of the fallen angels to find some easier habitation than their present abode proved abortive. In despair, mingled with great fear, they traversed through many a dark valley and fiery mountain, ‘caves, lakes, fens, bogs, dens and shades of death’. The places they passed through seemed veritable places of death. Nothing flourished in them, everything died, and nature lived there only in monstrous and uncouth and ugly shapes which were more abominable, inexpressible, and worse than the gorgons, the hydras and the chimaeras about which fables have spoken in the most terrible terms and figures. Among all the fallen angels, Satan is the supreme egoist, giving the “I” undue supremacy in his thoughts. From first to last his chief concern is himself, how best he may thrive and exalt himself. He has a lust for power, which makes him seek pre-eminence not only among the angels, but presumptuously claim parity with God. He must be great whether he is in Heaven or in Hell. Punished for his presumption in Heaven, and hurled down to Hell, he arrogates to himself the leadership of his community on the principle that it is “better to reign in Hell than serve in Heaven.” Or, as Masson puts it, “Having a third of the Angels away with him in some dark, howling region, where he might rule over them alone, seems infinitely preferable to his puny sovereignty of an Archangel in the world of gold and emerald.” Hence, whenever he refers to his eminence, there is a noticeable pride bordering on vain-glory, which ill becomes the mouth of any genuine leaders of men. In his opening address of the conclave in Hell, for example, there is tone of self-granulation. But of, he is not content to be merely the king of Hell. Untaught by experience, he “aspires beyond thus high”. He is equally jealous in defending his position against any rival; he exaggerates the defending his position against any rival; he exaggerates the risks of the exalted state he occupies to those who have but recently tasted the bitterness of God’s wrath. Thus it is place and power that he loves most not for the benefits they may confer on others, but solely that he may be foremost. Thus did the fallen angels disport themselves; each as his nature and inclination led him. But at, their amusements were on a much more colossal scale than human words can express. Milton leaves it all to be filled in by our imagination. Milton does not leave the reader in any doubt on the matter. He introduces Satan in all the ostentation of his power. The similies by which he refers to his appearance on his throne liken him to any absolute monarch of the Orient. Later, again, when Satan interferes in the debate, volunteering his service in the perilous expedition to the new World, he is described as having been raised to transcendent glory above his fellows, and speaking with “monarchal pride”. There is a passage, indeed, in his speech, which seems to exonerate him, and present him in the light of the selfless leader of his host. But of, examined in its context, it merely proves his anxiety to secure all the glory to himself. None shall share the honours of the enterprise with him. Being their imperial monarch, it is his duty to risk himself in their behalf. He would be unworthy of his high place, if he merely content to rule them in peace; he must share the hazards of his office as he does its glory. His duty becomes greater by virtue of the higher eminence he enjoys. Thus speciously he thrusts his absolute will upon his subjects, and without giving them further opportunity to speak, he dismisses them. Milton sets this scene in Hell in direct apposition with another in heaven where God Almighty announces his foreknowledge of the Fall of Man, and proclaims that he shall be saved if one among them will “pay the rigid satisfaction, death for death.” “Which of ye,” He asks, “will be mortal to redeem Man’s mortal crime?” None volunteers, and “silence was in Heaven.” But of, the Son of God comes forward finally, and undertakes the atonement for Man. His is not the tone of self-assertion that Satan’s is, but meek and gracious. And the behavior of either at the conclusion of their speeches is a further contrast. “Thus saying, rose the Monarch (Satan), and prevented all reply; Prudent lest, from his resolution, others among the chief might offer now.” This is superciliousness excelsior, the conduct of a hypersensitive absolutism. On the other hand, “His (Christ’s) words here ended, but his meek aspect Silent yet spake, and breth’d immortal love to mortal men, above which only shone Filial obedience.” This is absolute detachment from self, perfect devotion to a public cause. The same contrast is still further emphasized in the reaction of the audience to the two speeches. “Admiration seized all Heaven”, but the crew of Satan “bend towards him with awful reverence prone, and as a god extol him equal to the Highest Heaven.” Satan need not have taken the trouble of shutting out all further discussion about the enterprise , for not one of these devils dared to oppose him; ‘they dreaded not more the adventure than his forbidding.’ They had been cowed into such meek and abject submission. Satan tyrannous hold upon his subjects in nowhere else so much emphasized. Like the tyrant that he is, yet eager to preserve the formality and appearance of a republic in his government, he imposes his will upon his subjects in a very subtle manner. He has his own tool in Beelzebub, and having summoned the assembly and desired them to deliberate on the revenge they have taken on God, he uses Beelzebub to propose his plan. Milton makes it plain that the enterprise of seducing man did not originate with Beelzebub, but with Satan; and if the latter did not propose it himself, it was only his eagerness to appear that he was guided in all his actions by the will of his subjects. All the evidence so far examined thus makes it perfectly clear that Satan was an archangel ruined, greedy for power and jealous to preserve what he had acquired, ambitious of more, ostentatious, self-willed and tyrannical. This is first impression that Milton is careful to produce at the opening of his Second Book. To confound the race Of mankind in one root, and Earth with Hell To mingle and involve, done all to spite The greater Creator. The Old Testament provides Milton with a considerable part of his narrative material in Book I. He believed that the fallen angels lost the names they had borne in heaven before their fall and had taken the names of heathen idols, by which names they were worshipped by the tribes with whom the Hebrews came into contact, like the Ammonites, the Moabites and the Philistines. These gods parade in epic style in Book I. 381-505, and two of the most important, the first and the last, Moloch and Belial, appear again as principal speakers in the great debate in Book II. The next trait that we note in him is his passion for restless activity. In his very nature, says Mason, Satan was the most active of God’s archangels: ever doing some great thing, ever thirsting for some greater thing to do. Hence “uplifted high from despair” he schemes and plans, and resolves on the expedition which Beelzebub outlines in the poem. He has discussed it thoroughly with his bosom- companion, and having decided to venture on it, in spite of its dangers, he orders the building of Pandemonium, summons all the angel orders into it, and sits in council over them. Eager to carry out the plan himself, he first makes Beelzebub stress on the nature of the perils, then he himself proceeds to enlarge on them, and thus succeeds in getting himself approved as the prosperous spirit to venture on it. And no sooner does he dissolve the council, than he puts on swiftest wings, and he is gone. But of, all his activity is vindictive. It is to work out malice on God. His mission is to destroy what God has brought into being. He “represents cosmical negativity incarnate”. Hence he promises Sin and Death to glut their maw immeasurably by seducing the race of mankind, and to Chaos, the Anarch, he holds out the hope of reducing Earth “to her original darkness and your sway, and once more erect the standard there of ancient Night.” His is a destructive genius, maliciously bent on ruining God’s fair creation, merely to gratify his spite. “Yours be the advantage all, mine the revenge!” expresses with force of an epigram this trait of his character. Malice prepense against the Almighty leads him to be unscrupulous in this means and methods. Milton has made him propound the grand principle of his existence in Book-I..but he had reaped bitterly the fruits of an open revolt; therefore, in this book, he plans “covet guile”, and to achieve this end he studiously cultivates the arts of hypocrisy in overcoming all intermediate obstacles. Disdainful as he is of rout whose ruin he has brought about, he flatters and cajoles them into approving him for their leader in the enterprise. Despising as he does their weaker intelligence and their love of ease, he extols the harmony they have achieved amongst themselves, and bids them be merry the while he is absent from Hell. While these qualities are scarcely worthy of sympathy yet there are certain other traits in him which evoke our spontaneous admiration. They are his intrepidity, on the negative side, and his daring, on the positive. The deep, illimitable Abyss, the perils of which he speaks so assuredly about to his followers , does not daunt him. With rare courage and impetuous speed, he sets out alone into the unknown. Never once does he lose heart as he battles his way through the fierce impact of the atoms on him and around him. Milton enhances the grandeur of the struggle by the similies he employs on the occasion. Equally dauntless and undismayed is Satan in the presence of that grisly terror, Death. He could not understand what the Shape was as it came striding heavily and menacingly towards him. Confronted by Sin and Death, when he realises that his swaggwer may lead him to abandon his addresses her as ‘dear daughter’ and him as ‘fair son’,-the very Shapes, whom he has a moment ago despised and called out in vilest terms. Perhaps it is the memory of this meeting that makes him more courteous in his address of the Anarch, Chaos. Time is fleeting; he is all agog top reach the Material Universe. He has been caught in the welter of the warring elements and he is ignorant how farther he is yet to travel. Not to waste words, then, he is brief and courteous with the ruler of the Abyss. His apprenticeship to hypocrisy, here stands him in good stead later when he reaches the universe of man. His degradation has only commenced; it is to be completed later. He hurled words of high disdain on his head, and when he was answered too insolently, “incensed with indignation”, he burned like a comet that fires the length of Ophiuchus huge in the Arctic sky. Intrepid courage, such as this, is bound to win admiration for it-self. The whole episode deserves the eulogy that Sir Walter Raleigh has expended on it. But of, Satan is of absorbing interest not by virtue of his matchless courage alone. His inordinate ambition, his self-aggrandisement, his love of ostentation, his very power for evil and all that is embraced by that term-all these, too, have been rendered attractive by the poetic genius of Milton. Yet the secret of his charm is only in part due to his poetic timbre; the other part of it lies in the reader’s own psychological reaction to his character. All the world loves an exhibition of power, whatever be its nature. The strong whether virtuous or wicked, have the power to attract and to charm. Satan is the very embodiment of a volcanic energy which sweeps everything before it. He is “the image and type of those great and selfish conquerors whose pride it was to draw the admiring world after them; and whom Milton detested more than any other man.” The Bible provides Milton with something more than narrative material; his illustrative material, the content of his epic similies and other comparisons, is often taken from the scriptures. For example, when the speaks of the vast numbers of fallen angels, he compares them to the army with which Pharaoh pursued the Israelities to the shores of the Red Sea (I. 306-13), a passage which also illustrates Milton’s relish for the sound values is shown by his choice of the alternative form ‘Alcides’ for ‘Hercules’ ‘Herakles’.
There are, however, some differences in Milton’s use of his two main bodies of source material, slight though these are in comparison to the similarities. Milton was deeply learned in both, but whereas Old Testament material predominates in Book I in the much longer list of heathen idols and the greater number of scriptural authority. Milton relies almost exclusively on classical references even in his epic similes.
This must therefore be our conclusion. In Books I and II of Paradise Lost, Milton makes extensive and almost equal use of biblical and classical references reinforce or supplement each other in both narrative and illustration, and nowhere in this work is the conflict to be found between the two which unhappily occurs elsewhere, though Milton leaves us in no doubt that for him it is the bible which has the advantage of being divinely inspired. To Milton and many of his contemporaries, using the Bible as a literary source was a matter of grave concern: could the divinely inspired word of God be altered to the slightest extent in the interest of art? Milton decided that it could, although he considered the Bible, individually interpreted, to be far greater authority than any organized Church. Certainly, he considered the Old Testament to be much superior to the literature of ancient Greece, not only in its content, but also in its form: this he states clearly both in the Reason of Church Government (Bohn, Vol. 2, p 479) and in Paradise Regained IV. 331-50. in Paradise Lost, I and II, however, there is no direct conflict between these two major sources of literary inspiration, the biblical and classical. Thus Milton uses his biblical and classical material for two identical purposes: the fallen angels become both the heathen idols of the Old Testament and the pagan deities of classical mythology; and the resounding proper names of Milton’s epic similies are taken mainly from these two sources-when he wants size, he thinks of Levathian or these two sources- when he wants size, he thinks of Levathian or Briareus and Typhon, when quantity, Pharaoh’s armies, the leaves of Vallambrosa, or the barbarian hordes invading the Roman Empire. Both sources, too, can be drawn on for discussion of themes less obvious than the principle ones: the New Testament for the nature of the Holy Spirit whom Milton invokes in I.17; the colours of classical rhetoric for the variations in tone in the speeches of Book II, and Latinised syntax and vocabulary of the whole work. Urania, the mighty mother, was not by the side of Adonais when he died. She was in a sleep-like trance of extreme joy in her Paradise, listening to the melodious poetry of Adonais sung by one of her attending Echoes. Adonais was the youngest of the sons of Urania. He was a tender, lovely youth-her last hope; he was cut off just when he was showing signs of doing something much greater than he did. Adonais, however will not wake any more. In the place where his dead body lies-not yet covered under earth-the shadow of Death seems to spread itself. Corruption wants to make her way into the grave, but dare not touch the dead body but of pity till the darkness of the grave closes over it. Another luminious Dream kissed his cold mouth, the mouth from which she used to draw her strength. The Dream instead of drawing life from his lips now died because of contact with it, only lightning up the body for a moment. England wailed for Adonais more woefully than the nightingale mourning her dead mate and the eagle crying piteously over her empty nest. May the unknown critic who caused the death of Adonais suffer the curse inflicted on Cain! Urania rose like an autumnal night following a windy autumnal day. Wrapped in sorrow and fear, she made her way to the side of the dead Adonais. Spring season has become so wild with grief that it sheds all its buds. Since Adonais was gone, spring did not care to wake up Nature’s beauty. Narcissus, Hyacinth and other flowers stood pale and withered for grief. Kubla Khan cannot be dismissed as an incoherent opium dream (i.e. as mere incoherence). It is a meaningful poem. In the second part the poet speaks in his own person. He has a vision of an Abyssinian maid playing on her dulcimer and singing. Of Mount Abora. Mount Abora is Mount Amara and Mount Amara is a fabled paradise. “So the Abyssinian maid is singing”, as Graham Hough says, “of a paradiseal landscape very much like that of the opening lines- singing in fact of the same cluster of ideas under a different name and guise.” If the poet can relieve her song in his imagination, he himself can build the magic pleasure-dome as Kubla Khan has done. Thus in the second part of the poet makes us an attempt to realize the dream-to give it a concrete form. The second part does not hang independently of the first part. Both the parts are related, and they complement each other. J.B. Beer rightly says, “certain it is difficult to see how the poem could be carried on after the last stanza: the argument is there brought to an end with overwhelming finality.” The poem as it stands does present a meaning consistent both with itself and with that we know of Coleridge’s mind. Moreover, the images of the poem are so tightly drawn together and so closely interlocked that any addition will upset the balance. From the history of the composition of Kubla Khan it is obvious that the poem was left unfinished. Though the poem is a fragment, we hardly feel it is so. “We have a satisfying sense of completeness of the wheel having come full circle, of the magic of words and images having cast their plenary spell upon us. It is a dream conforming to the laws of dream-logic and carried to its full climax of suggestiveness; as much of a rounded and perfect whole as a vision is a capable of being.”(Dr. S.K. Banerjee & A.D. Mukherji). O’er many a frozen, many a fiery Alp, Rocks, caves, lakes, fens, bogs, dens, and shades of death.
Kubla Khan is a succession of images dressed in the colours of the rainbow and evocative of a world of mystery and enchantment. The images Coleridge uses in the poem are of opposing nature. The images of light and darkness, sunny dome and sunless sea or caves of ice. Paradise garden and hints of hell succeed one after another. The dome is the image of pleasure and the river that of life. The deep romantic chasm is the image of fear and mystery and the mighty fountain that of inexhaustible energy, now falling, now rising, but persisting ever. Then we have the homely images of ‘rebounding hail’ and ‘thresher’s flail’ both of which suggest the vigour of life. The image of ‘mazy motion’ suggests the spiritual complexities of life. The caverns measureless to man is the image that suggests the awesome mystery of human life, and the caves of ice finanal annihilation. To sum up, Kubla Khan is not mere incoherence or a fragment. In the second part the nature of imagery changes. The images are all related to poetic creation and inspiration¸ and they wear the hazy, remote semblance of symbolism. The damsel with a dulcimer is symbolical of poetic Muse who catches in her istument and reduces to order and harmony elemental sounds in their native dissonance and confusing medley. ‘Flashing eyes’ and ‘floating hair’ are the images of poetic frenzy, and ‘honey dew’ and ‘the milk of Paradise’ those of poetic inspiration. The images are mostly sensuous. The dome is not only an image of pleasure, but also an emblem of fulfillment and satisfaction. In the first part of the poem it is mentioned three times, as ‘a stately pleasure dome’ in line 2, ‘the dome of pleasure ‘in line 31 and “A sunny pleasure-dome’ in line 36. Each time the word ‘pleasure’ occurs with it. So too, the word ‘river’ is used three times in the first part and each time, without fail, it is “the sacred river.” The centre of the landscape in the first pat is the point at which the dome and the river join to the pleasure of our eyes..Here, without possibility of doubt, the poem presents the conjunction of pleasure and sacredness. The poem is divided into two parts. The first part (II.1-36) describes the magnificient pleasure-place which Kubla Khan orders to be built in Xanadu, place gifted with a paradisal landscape and full of bright gardens with meandering streams and blossoming incense-bearing trees, very ancient forests and spots overgrown with green mass of vegetation. There is also a hill with a deep mysterious chasm running down its slope. From this chasm water gushes out with such a great speed that huge pieces of rocks are scattered on all sides. It was a savage place, as holy and enchanted as the one frequented by a woman seduced and then deserted by a demon in human form. The sacred river Alph which is formed of the water bursting out of this chasm, winds five miles across the whole landscape and at last falls to a lifeless ocean with roaring sound. In the midst of the tumult of the river Kubla Khan can hear from far the voices of his ancestors foretelling war.
“Who was the sire of an immortal strain,
Blind, old, and lonely, when his country’s pride the priest, the slave, and the liberticide, Trampled and mocked with many a loathed rite Of lust and blood. He went, unterrified, Into the gulf of death’ but his clear spirit Yet reigns o’er earth, the third among the sons of light. “ The river runs meandering in a mazy motion. The maze is, of course, a well-known figure suggesting uncertain and blind progress and also stands for the spiritual complexities of human life. After five miles of mazy progress the river reaches the ‘caverns measureless to man’. The ‘caverns measureless to man’ might suggest infinity and nothingness. The river sinks, with first more tumult (i.e., death-agony) , to ‘lifeless ocean’ which stands for eternal nothingness, death. The ‘ancestral voices’ suggest that dark compulsion that binds the race to its habitual conflicts. The ‘mingled measure’ suggests the blend and marriage of fundamental oppositions: life and death or creation and destruction. The ‘caves of ice’ may hint at the cool cavernous depths in the unconscious mind. Symbolism is the chief criterion of the poetic craftsmanship of Kubla Khan. G.Wilson Knight in his illuminating article Coleridge’s Divine Comedy has analysed the symbolism of the poem -
Both on a height, the sacred river descends from a ‘ deep romantic chasm’, a place ‘savage’, ‘holy’ and ‘enchanted’, associated with both a ‘waning moon’ and a ‘woman wailing for her demon lover’. All these taken together might have suggestive the mystic glamour of sex.
Kubla Khan reflects the intense subterranean energy of a mind which cannot rest in its endeavour to apprehend all experience and to reduce it one harmony. “It will always remain”, as J.B. Beer says, “possible to enjoy it as a stream of images and ignore the opportunity which it affords of exploring the intricacies of Coleridge’s visionary world.” That the poem is a whole, and not a fragment is borne out by the fact that the images are so tightly drawn together and so closely interlocked that any addition will upset the balance. ‘The ceaseless turmoil’ the earth-mother breathing in ‘fast thick pants, the fountain ‘forced’ out with ‘half –intermitted burst’, the fragments rebounding like hail, ‘the chaffy grain beneath the flail’, the ‘dancing rocks’-suggest the dynamic imaginary of birth and creation. The pleasure-dome dominates. But of, its setting is carefully drawn and very important. There is a ‘sacred’ river that runs into ‘cavern measureless to man’ and a ‘sunless sea’. That is, the river into an infinity of death. The area through which it flows has gardens, rills, ‘incense-bearing’ trees, ancient forests. This is not unlike Dante’s earthly paradise. The river here is a symbol of life. Humphry House too has explained its symbolic significance. The bounding energy of its source makes the fertility of the plain possible: it is the sacred given condition of human life. The river, observes Humphry, is an image of the non-human, holy, given condition. It is an imaginative statement of the abundant life in the universe, which begins and ends in a mystery touched with dread, but it is a statement of this life as the ground of ideal human activity. Paradise Lost is an epic; it belongs to that species of poetic composition which is described as “objective”, i.e. in which the poet least intrudes himself, and is content to tell the story of other persons. There is thus no room for the expression of the personality of the poet; yet the greatness of Paradise Lost is due to its intense subjectivity, It is the superb utterance of a soul centered itself, which draws upon its own rich resources in the construction and perfection of as complete a work of art, and as noble as Nature Dame itself. An examination of the circumstances of the composition of the poem will lead to this conclusion. Milton was ambitious from youth of making his country as renowned as Greece and Rome by the production of some notable literary monument. He dedicated himself to this self-appointed notable literary monument. He dedicated himself to this self- appointed task with all the fervor of a Nazarite of ancient Judea: and, deliberately, he set out to prepare himself for it with religious zeal. He believed that his work must be divinely inspired and should show the proper fruits of study. Like the Hebrew prophets of old, he led a life of abstemious virtue, even denying himself simple luxuries, and incessantly praying to the Eternal Spirit to touch and purify his lips with the hallowed fire of “all utterance and Knowledge.” With all the assiduity of Petrarch or of Goethe he devoted himself to self-preparation. “In wearisome labour and studious watchings,” he confesses, “I have tried out almost a whole youth.” “Labour and intense study,” he took to be his portion in life. He would know, not all, but “what was of use to know”, and form himself by assiduous culture. By 1642 he had found completed his equipment, and there remained for him the choice of the theme and form. Even these were settled by 1658, although he took a long time deliberating about them. Meanwhile events were moving fast around him in the political sphere, of the wheels of which he himself was a cog. He had now become totally blind, and was thrown more upon his own resources. Always independent of others, he now began to live more intensely within himself. His isolation was further aggravated with the Restoration. He was surrounded by enemies, and his very existence was in jeopardy. Though circumstances eased a little, the blind genius could not rid himself of the conviction of his danger. His only comfort at the time was the work for which he had been deliberately preparing himself; and prevented from expressing his indignation openly, he let loose his fury in the fable he was composing. The very theme of his epic- a revolt- offered a parallel to the conditions of his existence. To him civil war in Heaven was more than the Civil War he had himself gone through. It symbolized the tragedy of his own situation with peculiar force, and he brought to bear all learning he had painfully accumulated, all the energy, fire and fury of his own character on the composition of this great epic. Thus we have the poet living and breathing in ever line of what he has written, not only in those purely personal utterances with which he prefaces parts of the poem, but also in the very framework and body, and the characters and sentiments of the epic. The theme of Paradise Lost is founded upon the meager account of the creation of Paradise, and the fall of man as narrated in the Book of Genesis. Milton had built the mighty edifice of his epic upon this slender foundation. The literalism which his particular brand of Christianity fostered in him never allowed him to depart from this account, but he built round it such a wealth of detail from the learning with which he had stored his mind, that it astonishes us. This scaffolding, however, is no superfluity; it forms an integral part of the poem. The war in Heaven, the defeat of Satan and his crew, their rout through Chaos, are details which have been added to the account in Genesis; Milton owed the knowledge of them to several sources, Hebraic, Greek, Latin and Italian. But at, they seem to be quite necessary for the central theme, the temptation of Eve in the Garden of Eden. Besides, Milton was faced with the difficulty of rendering the superhuman probable and credible; he had to use the ordinary language of human speech in describing supramundane activities of his angels and devils against the background of the mighty deed of the allusions. All this wealth of learning, which forms so essential, is a part of the poem shows what a scholar Milton was. But of, his learning is not mere pedantry. It has been sublimated by the fervor of his intellect, has lived in the habitual companionship of the great and the wise of past time. His delight was to sport in the wide regions of possibility; reality was a scene too narrow for his mind. He sent his faculties out upon discovery, into worlds where only imagination can travel, and delighted to form new modes of existence, and furnish sentiment and action to superior beings, to trace the counsels of Hell, or accompany the choirs of Heaven. The pleasure-dome as described in the poem may be fancied as the pleasure of a sexual union in which birth and death are the great contesting partners, with human existence as the life-stream, the blood-stream, of a mighty coition. Milton’s imagination possessed the power of visualizing vividly vast spaces and his art enabled him to present what it saw in pregnant and beautiful form. Such is the description of the frozen continent beyond the river Lethe in Hell or, of the empyreal Heaven seen the far distant verge of Chaos, extending wide, or finally of the pendent world, hanging by a golden chain. The characteristic of these pictures is that they are all clearly outlined, and are made vivid through the use of the metaphor of luminiosness. But of, they are all pictures of landscape, and they suggest either charm or hideousness. Rarely are there such clear descriptions of individuals. There is no glamour in his sketch either of the divinity or of his angels. But in, in suggesting pictures of monstrosities, like Sin and death, his imagination is most active. That Light whose smile kindles the Universe, That Beauty in which all things work and move, That Benediction which the eclipsing Curse Of birth can quench not, that sustaining Love Which through the web of being blindly wove By man and beast and earth and air and sea, Burns bright or dim, as each are mirrors of The fire for which all thirst, now beams on me, Consuming the last clouds of cold mortality. The vividness of the imagination has in Milton’s case something to do with his blindness. The clearness with which Milton divides space into Heaven, Chaos, Hell and the Material Universe, and the frequency with which the imagery of fluency occurs in the poem reveal, if there were no external evidence even, that the poet must have been blind when he composed his great work. Milton had become totally blind by 1652. A few years later his vision was totally dark. “In what”, asks Masson, “would the imaginations of things physical of such a person consist? Would they not consist in carving this medium into zones, divisions , and shapes, in painting phantasmagorias, on it or in it, in summoning up within it or projecting into it combinations of such recollections of the once visible world as remained strongest and dearest in the memory? But are there not certain classes of images, certain kinds of visual recollection that would be easier in such a state of blindness than others? The recollections of minute objects may grow dimmer and dimmer, but there would be a compensation in the superior vividness with which certain other sensations of sight, and in particular all luminous effects, all contrasts of light and darkness are remembered.” “Thou wert the morning star among the living Ere thy fair light had fled- Now, having died, thou art as Hesperus, giving New splendor to the dead.” – Plato. The subject of the Second Book is the debate in Hell, the amusements of the devils, the episode of Sin and Death, Satan’s journey through Chaos and his approach to the New World. It shows vastness and Chaos and his approach to the New World. It shows vastness and grandeur of conception beyond the reach of ordinary human fancy. The ability to endow such mighty characters as Moloch, Belial, Mammon, Beelzebub and Satan with sentiments proper to their superhuman nature, the originality to invent games and pastimes for the devils in Hell, the capacity to create such formidable Shapes as Sin and Death, and the power to fill the void illimitable with jarring atoms- these necessarily reveal the active and fervid imagination of the poet. In the words of Samuel Johnson, Milton had accustomed his imagination to unrestrained indulgence, and his conceptions therefore were extensive. The characteristic quality of typed poem was sublimity. But at, it is in his delineation of Satan that Milton has revealed himself most. He found Satan’s situation as a political rebel corresponding with his own, and in the absence of any source from which he could draw his lineaments he endowed him with characteristics which were his own and those of the party to which he belonged. Not that he was in sympathy with the character, as some critics of the poet have argued- Milton could never be in sympathy with a rebel against God; but intuitively, and, as Denis Saurat has expressed it, in revene on himself, in his sense of isolation, in his lofty disdain o his crew. The pride and indomitable courage of the revolted archangel rekindled the emotion of the interest hours of his own life. Satan’s reserved and self-contained nature, brooding over his own ideas, not easily admitting into his mind of ideas, of others- these were also the characteristics of Milton’s nature. Milton felt with Satan that he had fallen upon evil days, and that he was compassed round with dangers and solitude. He had the same “indurated egoism “as the fallen archangel, and he was as unrepentant in his obstinacy as the other. Like Satan again, he was fond of exploring the unknown on the wings of his imagination, and as daring in his flights; and like Satan Milton had a contempt for the people-“a herd confus’d , a miscellaneous rabble, who extol things vulgar.” Milton has thus projected himself most into the character of Satan, especially in the first two books, so that we can draw a clear sketch of the character of the poet from merely studying him. The words of Lord Tennyson has fixed for all time the characteristic achievement of Milton. His forte lay in lifting a metre which had become vulgar and debased by ling usage on the stage to the heights of pure eloquence and harmony. He was helped in it by his long musical training. Music conditioned all his youth. His father taught him to sing tunably and to play upon the organ. He returned to it for solace in his blind old age. It is with the music of this instrument that our thoughts instinctively associate him. Paradise Lost then though epic and objective, is a poem into which Milton has put most to himself, his own pride and temperament. He so constantly returns to himself in the poem that he limits its objective value, but this very self-centeredness imparts to it a continuous emotion and eloquence and lyrical ardour. Milton’s absorbent personality is the central force of the poem.
“The redemption after all”, said Quiller- Couch, ‘ and the last high vindication of this most magnificient poem are not to be sought in its vast conception or in its framing, grand but imperfect as Titanic work always has been and ever will be. To find them you must lean your ear closely to its angelic language, to its cadenced music. Once grant that we have risen-as Milton commends us to rise above humankind and the clogging of human passion,- where will you find, but in Paradise Lost, language fit for seraphs, speaking in the quiet of dawn in sentry before the gates of Heaven? And the secret of it? I believe the grand secret to be very simple. I believe you may convince yourself where it lies by watching the hands of any good organist as he plays.”
It lies in the movement of the verse “the exquisitely modulated slide.” Milton builds his “lofty rhyme”, no doubt, upon the iambic decasyllabled blank verse line already popular on the stage, but his unit is not so much the line as the ‘period’ or the paragraph. There is considerable movement within the paragraph and the line to suggest the flute notes and the full swell of the pipes, which form so essential a feature of organ-music. The movement or rhythm rises from the clear flute-note at the beginning, to a grand swelling burst, or diapason open and thundering in the middle, till it ends in a crush or shiver. The best way to realise all this is to read a ‘period’ aloud, avoiding any temptation to chant it, and paying special heed to the last line. Through wood and stream and field and hill and Ocean A quickening life from the Earth's heart has burst As it has ever done, with change and motion, From the great morning of the world when first God dawned on Chaos; in its stream immersed, The lamps of Heaven flash with a softer light; All baser things pant with life's sacred thirst; Diffuse themselves; and spend in love's delight The beauty and the joy of their renewed might. Milton achieves this movement by making free and bold use of all the variations practiced before his time both within the line and the ‘period’. That which imparts fluidity to the verse within the ‘period’ is the skilful use he makes of the ‘caesura’, or the break in the middle of a metrical foot, rarely are the lines end-stopped, i.e, rarely does the sense stop with the end of the line, but it runs on from line to line, and when pauses are necessary, they are introduced within the line itself, not at the end of it. With some poets, and even with Shakespeare, these pauses in the intermediate parts of a ‘period’ occur regularly at the end of the second or the third foot in the line, but Milton observes no such rule. Skillfully he adjusts them, so that if one line the break occurs at the end of the second foot, in the next it may occur at the end of the first, third , or the fourth foot, and so forth with the lines that follow. Nay, he delights in breaking up the foot itself, so that the pauses occur at the end of the first, or third, or fifth, or the seventh, or the ninth syllable in consecutive lines. These breaks or pauses impart the necessary volumes to the utterance. “It is because the sense is suspended through line after line, and because Milton takes pain to avoid coincidence of the rhetorical pauses with the line-end that we have the continuity of rhythm which is so characteristic a feature of his blank verse.” Of such syntactical peculiarities the grammarian will note the inversion of the natural order of words and phrases, especially the placing of a word between two others which depend upon it, or on which it depends, such as a noun between two adjectives, or a verb between two nouns; the omission of words not necessary to the sense; parenthesis and apposition; the absolute clauses, etc. ‘In his later poetry’ wrote Raleigh, ‘there are no gliding connectives; no polysyllabic conjunctive clauses, which fill the mouth while the brain prepares itself for the next word of value; no otiose epithets , and very few that court neglect by their familiarity. His poetry is like the eloquence of the Lord Chancellor Bacon, as described by Ben Jonson: - “No man ever spake more neatly, more pressly, more weightly, or suffered less emptiness, less idleness in what he uttered. No member of his speech but consisted of his own graces. His hearers could not cough, or look aside from him, without loss.” ‘In effect he attains, therefore, ‘a carefully jeweled mosaic, ‘and melodious style. With the same freedom, and to achieve the same artistic and melodious effects, Milton introduces variations within the blank verse line. These variations are of two types. The ordinary line of blank verse used by Milton has ten syllables, with the stress regularly falling on the even number of syllables. This type of line is known as the iambic decasyllabled line. In the first place, he drops one or other of these stresses, or adds a syllable to the foot, and then the pace is quickened; the effect is one of ease and lightness. In the second place, he doubles the stress in the foot, or displaces it making the stress fall on the odd syllable, not on the even, and the pace is retarded; the effect, then, is one of strength and emphasis. Thy spirit's sister, the lorn nightingale Mourns not her mate with such melodious pain; Not so the eagle, who like thee could scale Heaven, and could nourish in the sun's domain Her mighty youth with morning, doth complain, Soaring and screaming round her empty nest, As Albion wails for thee: the curse of Cain Light on his head who pierced thy innocent breast, And scared the angel soul that was its earthly guest! Thus Milton avoids the monotony of the regular decasyllabic blank verse by these variations in stress. These impart greater rhythm to the line, and when line upon line follows in this fluid manner, with the pauses so adjusted as rarely to fall at the end of the line, the effect on the ear is of the ‘pealing organ.” Go thou to Rome,-at once the Paradise, The grave, the city, and the wilderness; And where its wrecks like shattered mountains rise, And flowering weeds, and fragrant copses dress The bones of Desolation's nakedness Pass, till the spirit of the spot shall lead Thy footsteps to a slope of green access Where, like an infant's smile, over the dead A light of laughing flowers along the grass is spread; But of, in his choice of words, Milton kept not only the rhythmical necessity in view, he was also careful about its place in order of thought. He never sacrificed the one to the other. His triumph consists in the undisturbed precision of his thought throughout, and despite the complex demands of the rhythm. Each word, like a stone in a cathedral arch, has its place and duty, each seems chosen as if for no purpose other than to advance his meaning, to bear its portion of the weight of a vast structure, yet each, viewed from the other side, seems only chosen to play its part in the musical scheme. The pattern of the thought brooks no interference from that of the rhythm, nor that of the rhythm from the pattern of the thought. Milton was greatly aided in adjusting his musical stresses by the very variety of words in the language he used. English has many powerful monosyllabic words, both extended and abrupt (like strength and rang), which check the run of the line as by a curb. It has monosyllables of another kind (words like mourn and far) on which the voice lingers more gently and which it prolongs. It has polysyllables that carry on the breath and the sense together. It possesses also in its numerous enclitics, its idioms compounded or muted half-pronounced sounds that are hardly adverbs or prepositions, but rather small servants to the main words, an inexhaustible source for filling the crevices of the metre. English has within itself material for a multiple effect as great as any that language can proclaim. And yet with this language, as with any other, only the masters of the first rank can achieve that consistent and living variety in unity for which the universe is our model. (H. Belloc) Milton was thus very careful in the choice of his words, and where the Saxon word was unsuited he used the Latin derivative. These words of Latin origin were already familiar in the language, but with vague connotations. But of, whenever Milton used them, he used them precisely, in their original signification. Thus are his usages of “afflict” in the sense of “crush” (L.86) , “globe” in the sense of “compact body”, (L.52), “intend” in the sense of “attend to”, (L.456), “laboring” in the sense of “eclipsed”,(L.665) etc. sometimes, as in “horrent” (bristling) and “torrent” (rushing) Milton was the first to introduce them. But of, the proportion of these words to the Saxon element in his diction is very little. In using these words of Latin derivation, Milton made them yield both their original significance and the more familiar but vaguer sense which they had acquired in English air. Thus is the use of “afflict” or “intend” cited above, also “incensed” as descriptive of Satan’s appearance. Milton carried this practice even into the Saxon element of language. Thus the word “uncouth” is used in the double-barrelled sense of “unknown” and “horrible”, in the line “his uncouth way.” Another means which he adopts to make his words both melodious and logical is to use one part of speech for another, such as a verb for the noun, as ‘consult’ for ‘consultation’, the adjectival form for the adverb or the noun, as ‘horrible in ‘grinned horrible’, for ‘horribly’; ‘obscure’ in ‘palpable obscure’ for ‘obscurity’: ‘abrupt’ in ‘the vast abrupt’ for ‘abruptness.’ And so, “in the first place, the very physical scheme and conception of the poem as a whole seems a kind of revenge against blindness. It is a compulsion of the very conditions of blindness to aid in the formation of a visual phantasmagory of transcendent vastness and yet perfect exactness. That roof of a boundless Empyrean above all, beaming with indwelling light; that Chaos underneath this, of immeasurable opaque blackness; hung in this blackness by a touch from the Empyrean, the created Universe, conceived as a sphere of soft blue ether brilliant with luminaries; separated thence by an intervening belt of Chaos, and marked as a kind of Antarctic zone of universal space, a lurid or dull-red Hell: in all this we have the poet marking districts to remain in their native opaque, rescuing others into various contrasts of light. In the filling-up, in the imagination of what goes on within any one of the districts into which space is marked out, or by way of the intercourse of districts with one another, we may trace the same influence. Much of the action and incident consists of the congregation of angelic beings in bands beyond the Universe of Men, or in their motions singly towards the Universe, descrying it from afar, or in their wingings to and fro within the Universe from luminary to luminary. Now in all these portions of the poem the mere contrasts of darkness with light goes very far. When Satan, already half-way through Chaos in his quest of the New Universe, ceases his temporary halt at the pavilion of Night, and, having received direction there, rises with fresh alacrity for his further ascent, the recommencement of his motion is described in the lines that he sprang upward ‘like a pyramid of fire’. Thus we see the fond familiarity of the blind poet with the element of light in contrast with darkness, and an endless inventiveness of mode, degree, and circumstance in his fancies of the element. In Paradise Lost brilliance is to a considerable extent, Milton’s favourite synonym for beauty.” No more heart-breaking effect of weariness and eternity of effort could be produced in a single line: ‘the slight stress and pause needed after each word to render the full meaning produced, when the words are short as well as emphatic , a line of terrific weight and impact.’ It is the same need for melody that is responsible for his collocation of words (usually monosyllables) as well as names. The line, for example, “o’er bog or steep, through strait, rough, dense, or rare”, is suggestive of the troublesome passage of Satan, while describing the roughness of the road taken by him. Similar is his description of the dolorous march of the fallen angels. In the arrangement and disposition of these picked words in the sentence Milton’s classical and scholarship aided him in achieving melodious effects. It is not true to say that he deliberately set out to alter the genius of English by imposing on it an alien syntax: for, at the time he was writing, English literary composition whether in verse or prose, was in a state of flux; it had not released itself from the bondage to an alien construction imposed on it since the Renaissance. Miton’s own classical beat of mind roamed at will in the peccadilloes of foreign idioms and syntax, and when they suited his own objective of melody, he used them with the sue hand of matter. Milton! thou shouldst be living at this hour: England hath need of thee: she is a fen Of stagnant waters: altar, sword, and pen, Fireside, the heroic wealth of hall and bower, Have forfeited their ancient English dower Of inward happiness. We are selfish men; Oh! raise us up, return to us again; And give us manners, virtue, freedom, power. Such also are the conjunctions of place-names, like Ternate and Tidore, Damiata and Mount Caius, Calabria and Trinacrion, Barca and Cyrene. Milton was the first to make poetic use of place-names. They are all taken from ancient history and geography, as well as more recent travel-books. Milton made a study of them with the help of maps. But at, even they seem to him at times too familiar, too little elevated and remote to furnish a resting-place for a song that intended “no middle flight”. He therefore transforms his proper names, such as Hercules into Alcides, both to make them more melodious, and to make them familiar to the ear. ‘Milton’s use of proper names is a measure of his poetic genius.’ It is his most characteristic gift to English letters. The sonnet was written during the same visit to London as inspired written in London, September, 1802 (“O Friend: I know not”) and probably also The world is too much with us. It was published in 1807. Wordsworth invokes Milton as the representative in 1807. Wordsworth invokes Milton as the representative of the lofty and austere ideals of conduct cherished by the noblest leaders of the Puritan party. The breath whose might I have invoked in song Descends on me; my spirit's bark is driven Far from the shore, far from the trembling throng Whose sails were never to the tempest given; The massy earth and sphered skies are riven! I am borne darkly, fearfully, afar; Whilst, burning through the inmost veil of Heaven, The soul of Adonais, like a star, Beacons from the abode where the Eternal are. But of, Milton’s purpose in thus exercising great care both in the choice of his diction and his use of an alien syntax, is not merely harmonic. It is to produce the necessary suggestion of sublimity to suit the lofty nature of his theme. His preference of the less familiar Latin derivative to the Saxon word, his more frequent use of a foreign syntax, and his deliberate attempt at a condensed style remove his style from the converse of daily speech and impart to it a certain stateliness and dignity, which may be truly called sublime. Milton surprisingly able to entrance this effect by his descriptions. The figures of speech that Milton employs are to the same end: they serve either to enhance the melody or to add to the sublimity. Of the former type is his use of onomatopoeia, the sound being adjusted to the sense. The most famous example in the poem is the description of the opening of Hell-gates. Descriptions are generally of a concrete nature, but it would be ludicrous to bring the realms of Heaven and Chaos within the concrete and tangible sphere of reality. Milton by a judicious conjunction of concrete and abstract terms is able to suggest just that air of vagueness and substantiality, of unreality and reality, with which we usually associate these objects. He uses abstract terms magnificiently, but almost always with a reference to concrete realities, not as the names of separate entities. By the substitution of abstract nouns for concrete he achieves a wonderful effect of majesty. He doesnot name, for instance, the particular form of wind instrument that the heralds blew in Hell: - “Four speedy cherubim put to their mouths the sounding alchemy.” He avoids defining his creatures by names that lend themselves to definite picture: of Death he says- “So spake the grisly Terror.” The same vagueness is habitually studied by Milton in such phrases as “the vast abrupt”, “the palpable obscure”, “the void immense”, “the wasteful deep”, where, by the use of an adjective in place of a substantive the danger of a definite and inadequate conception is avoided. Milton therefore describes the concrete, the specific, the individual, using general and abstract terms for the sake of the dignity and scope that they lend. While bringing out the defects of the people of the time of Wordsworth, the sonnet throws light on the essential features of the character of Milton also. The poet deals more with Milton the man than Milton the poet. Milton was an ardent fighter for freedom in all spheres. He insisted on a high standard of purity in all walks of life. Not content with preaching a high standard, he lived a life of purity. Hence, Wordsworth is perfectly right when he remarks that his soul was like a star that dwelt apart. Further, though he played a part in high circles in the course of the Civil War between the Parliament and King Charles I, he was essentially humble and did not consider and duty too low for him. This is the virtue that is admired most by Wordsworth. Hence his conclusion that there was no man better fitted for the task of raising the selfish people of the nineteenth century and giving them manners, freedom, virtue, and power , than Milton. Milton is able to suggest his effects by the frequent use of the consonant ‘r’. He is said to have rolled his ‘r’s so as to give a sound much like a dog’s snarl. The notion of Death’s relentless disregard of persons is well brought out by the ‘r’s employed in the description of Death: “Death grinned horribly a ghastly smile”. According to Verity, shuddering is suggesting by the ‘r’s in “the parching air burns fore.” The second feature of the Miltonic simile is that it is homologous, i.e., there is perfect correspondence between each detail of the object and what is compared with. ‘Even when Milton digresses in his similes he doesnot do so, as Homer and other poets do, for the sole reason of drawing a diverting picture. There is always some relevant suggestion to be found if one thinks of all the associations. It is, then, in the completeness of its correspondence with the object that Miltonic simile is most unique and best demonstrates the control which he exercised over his artistic imagination.’ Another effect of the similes used by Milton is that they supply the “human interest”, the want of which is “always felt”-as by Jonson. Besides they bear testimony to the learning which he made the servant of his imagination. On the whole, they seem ‘to illustrate for us the saying of Longinus that “the sublime is a certain excellence and perfection of language.” Here, one might almost say, we may make acquaintance with the whole art of poetry, here is a liberal education for those who seek it. Of the figures that aid sublimity chief mention must be made of personification. It is a figure difficult to handle, and generally fails in effect through falling into one of two extremes. Either the quality, or the person, is forgotten. But of, with Milton the vastness and vagueness of the abstract is combined with the precise and definite conception of a person. Such are the figures of Sin and Death.
Next is the simile of the warring atoms being compared with the sands of the deserts of Africa. These atoms in the realm of Chaos are like the sand in the desert, not only because they are upborne by the surge of the elements in Chaos, like the sands rising with the winds that blow them. A third point of comparison is that the ‘embryon atoms’ are as weighty in their destructive force, as the sands are which load the wind and carry destruction with them wherever they are blown about. A third simile, which we may consider here, is the description of the rejoicings of the rebel angels in their matchless chief. It is a long drawn simile and the points of comparison are not at first apparent. But in, careful thinking will reveal that every part of the picture corresponds to the scene in Hell. The melancholy and despair which had seized the rebel angels in Hell is compared with the luring sky when dark clouds oppress it. Satan’s cheerful acceptance of the adventure into the realm of Chaos is compared with the bright rays of the evening sun. Satan, who is immediately to venture out into the unknown, leaving his comrades behind him is compared with the sun which is departing from the cloud. And the cheer that overspread the gloomy faces of the assembly, and the murmur of joy they gave vent to, are compared with the happiness that spreads over the face of nature, both animate and inanimate, and the songs and cries they indulge in. thus the simile is completely homologous.
“ So spake the Sovereign Voice, and clouds began
To darken all the hill, and smoke to roll In dusky wreaths, reluctant flames, the sign At the end of the first book Satan had reminded the devils of a creation about to take place, and announced his intention to investigate it. Satan sits exalted on a throne of royal dignity, like any Eastern potentate. He has been raised to that bad eminence by his unconquerable will, superior courage and imposing stature. Nevertheless he does not realize that it is through the sufferance of great Providence that he has lifted to such a height from despair. Hence he aspires to get higher and wage war with heaven he seeks counsel for a fresh conquest of Heaven. Then in tones of supreme self-complacency he addresses his hosts. Of wrath awaked; nor with less dread the loud Ethereal trumpet from on high 'gan blow: At which command the Powers militant, That stood for Heaven, in mighty quadrate joined Of union irresistible, moved on..” The analysis of some of the similes in our poem will best illustrate these features. First, the simile of Satan being compared to a comet “that fires the length of Ophiuchus huge.” ‘Satan is like the comet in fiery radiance, in enormousness, in the fact that both are ominous of impending calamity. But of, there is still more. Satan is a serpent- “Ophiuchus” means “holder of serpents”; hence the comet is appropriately said to fire the length of this particular constellation. Furthermore Satan is always associated with the quarters of the North, for which reason Milton puts Ophiuchus in the arctic sky, though only with astronomical freedom.’
“In silence their bright legions, to the sound
Of instrumental harmony, that breathed Heroic ardor to adventurous deeds Under their God-like leaders, in the cause Of God and his Messiah.” Belial, ‘at the other pole of temperament and thought’, personifying Lust and Slothful Ease, replies that a reason for war, grounded on despair, such as Moloch’s is of itself a reason against war. There is no room for revenge. God is unconquerable: and to be annihilated (Moloch’s hope in case of a second defeat), is not desired. Belial has sympathy with intellect, even in God. Nor is the rest of his speech less full of the contempt of the highly cultivated intelligence for the brute bluster of Moloch. “What worse, they say, than this Hell. Is this quiet council of ours worse than being chained on the burning lake? We might be tenfold more wretched did God choose it. Therefore I give my voice for peace. Who will say it is vile to live in peace? It is not vile to suffer. We risked all and the law is just which says, suffer now. I laugh at those who are bold with the sword, and not brave to bear the doom they risked. And if we suffer quietly, our foe may remit. His anger, our pain lessen, or we become inured to it, or time bring better chance.”- This is the image of intellectual culture without goodness, made soft by sin, in a nation decayed by luxury, and enslaved. [S.A. Brooke] All Hell applauds the speech of Mammon. Then Beelzebub rises, and in him Milton draws the ‘sublime picture of a great minister touched with a gleam of far-off beauty from another world than Hell,’ and the attention given to him is ‘as still as night or summer’s noontide air.’ he upbraids them for their want of spirit, and reminds them that they are still God’s prisoners. “Why speak of growing empires”, he asks, “why of peace or war? God will rule Hell as Heaven. Hell is His empire not ours. Peace will not be given, nor can we return it. War has been tried, and we are foiled. But of, we can study a less dangerous enterprise which will surpass common revenge. There is a new world, and indwellers in it, in whom God takes pleasure. We may spoil His pleasure by ruining His creation.” He thus points out the possibility of revenge in destroying the new creation, or atleast in possessing it themselves and causing the fall of man. Beelzebub’s speech unites those who wish for war and peace. He is loudly applauded. His counsel thus receiving favour, he next proceeds to remind them of the fearful difficulties of the journey across Chaos, and invites volunteers. The brief introduction to the debate reveals Satan as ‘more proud in his assumed humility than his loudest boasting; and Milton’s object is to deepen our sense of his pride and isolation.’ Satan makes revenge the keynote of the council. His first word is encouragement. Though fallen, they need not despair. They have such immoral vigour in them that no deep can hold them. Far from being worse for the fall they can use their very adversity to rise “more glorious and more dread,” and “trust themselves to fear no second fate.” Let them have confidence in him, their leader. Moloch, the personification of Hatred, declares of war, pointing out that they have nothing to fear from worse punishment, and that ascent from Hell is natural to them. His speech is the ‘image of brute force in its despair, in its blind anger, in its hatred of pain and its weakness to endure it.’ His next words are a consciousness of his worth, a supreme self satisfaction that he is their natural leader. Just right and fixed laws of Heaven have created him their chief. Next their own free choice, supplemented by his own intrinsic merits in both counsel and fight, have contributed to his greatness and security. Nevertheless by none of these qualifications has he been so firmly established in his secure throne, as by the fall they have all shared in common. A more excited state, or loftier position, in Heaven, would have brought with it the envy of others, who have not been so fortunate to get such a status; but in Hell the most exalted position, because of its nearness to danger is the least envied by others. None will covet a-loftier place for himself in Hell, since the higher he climbs, the nearer he is to the Thunderer’s aim, and thus he would expose himself to greater danger. Thus there is no room in Hell for any jealousy or envy, and his position therefore is undisputed. Mammon, personifying Love of Wealth, falls in with Belial’s suggestion of peace, but advises action, not sloth, the settlement of a prosperous empire in Hell. “War means”, says he, “either to disenthrone God, or to regain our place. The first is impossible, the second unacceptable. Suppose, He gave us back our place, could we serve Him, spend and eternity in servile worship of one we hate? Let us seek our good from ourselves, build a free empire here, and win use out of ill-fortune, and ease out of pain. Our world is dark, but we have skill to make it magnificent: and, by length of time, our torments may become our elements native to us, and be no longer pain. Dismiss all thought of war.”- This is the image of the empire of godless utility and wealth, of that world which says, Man shall live by bread alone.-[S.A. Brooke]. The Council ended, the fallen angels occupy themselves in diverse ways, while Satan hurries on his quest to the new world. ‘Of a true Hell there is nothing here. The amusements described here are not natural to that dark dwelling. The Homeric games, the philosophical discourse on retired hills, the music and heroic song in the silent valley, the “bold adventure to discover wide that dismal world”, take our thoughts away from Hell. Save in the first circle (beyond the river Lethe), we do not meet such pictures in Dante’s actual Inferno. There is no true horror or pain in Milton’s Hell. He never saw the damned.’ [S.A. Brooke]
None dares to take up the offer. Satan, thereupon, as becomes his position as leader, undertakes the quest. In this way he gratifies his desire to get glory for himself. ‘He’ has to struggle against the atoms which threaten to crush him, but at last he sees the light of Heaven by which he picks his way slowly to the outer hard crust of the new-created world.
Sin and Death are appeased, and they open the gates of Hell, whence Satan emerges into Chaos. Satan wings his way through the warning elements in Chaos. The elements of Nature in their embryonic form strive for mastery here. He reaches the throne of Chaos with great difficulty, and through guile and fair promise, learns from him about the creation of the new world. Since the way thither is not distant, Satan hurries onward. The Second Book of Paradise Lost is one of the highest triumphs of Milton’s imaginative art. The sad, silent, solitary and blind poet saw more in his blindness than it is possible for any man to see with his healthy eyes. God closed his physical eyes, but made his imaginative vision so clear and powerful that it was more than a compensation for his loss. The wonderful imaginative richness which is the chief distinction of Paradise Lost is nowhere so remarkable as in this book. The great ambition of the poet leads him to conceive and describe things, events, scenes and persons which transcends human knowledge and experience; and so amidst those superhuman beings and their extra mundane activities the only guide of the poet was his imagination. This wonderfully fertile imagination of the poet is the most active in the Second Book.
Porter:
“In conclusion, equivocates him in a sleep, and giving him the lie, leaves him.”’ Satan finds two shapes at the gate of Hell, one of whom disputes his passage, shaking a dart. Both, undaunted, fall to words, and would have fought, but the other Shape intervenes. Addressing Satan as “father” and the other as “son”, she adjures them to abstain from fighting. Satan betraying his surprise at this address, she reminds him of a time in Heaven, when she sprang from his head, was called Sin, and became by him the mother of Death, the other Shape, after the fall from heaven. Satan tells them the object of his journey, which will benefit them both. [G.C. Irwin] He tells them that he has come there really on a quest to find out ways and means by which to set them as well as the other fallen angels free from Hell. For their sake he has undertaken to venture alone through the deeps of Hell, and Chaos afterwards. He goes in quest of a place which has been foretold, should be created, and which by other signs and events that have happened since, may have been created by then. It is to be in the outskirts of Heaven, and a new race would have inhabited it probably to fill the void created by their fall from Heaven. But of, it would be outside Heaven lest those upstart creatures should again create trouble in it. Satan is anxious to find out these things for himself, and when his quest ends , he would return and take them back to this new anode, to move about freely and invisibly in the air, and they can satiate their un appeasable hunger there, for everyone in the new world shall be the victim. The Second Book may be divided into two equal halves. The first half describes the debates of the infernal council, and the second half gives us pictures of Hell and Chaos, Satan’s passage through them and his encounter with sin and death at the Hell-gates. We may call the first part natural and realistic and the second part supernatural and imaginative. In the first part we are on firm ground and feel ourselves to be in the British House of Commons ; but in the second part the ground is taken from under our feet and we lose ourselves in horrors, monstrosities and perplexities. What a splendid wealth of Parliamentary logic and eloquence we find in the first part! We are made to feel that we are all in the seventeenth century British House of Commons where the great public leaders are devising ways and means to destroy the Stuart tyranny. The revolutionary spirit of the poet himself is seated “high on a throne of royal state” in the person of the proud and ambitious Arch rebel. Moloch’s brute bluster Belial’s effeminate intellectualism, Mammon’s sordid materialism, Beelzebub’s wise statesmanship are all pictures from real life. The strength and weakness, wisdom and eloquence, pride and prejudice that are displayed in the infernal council are so perfectly human that we forgot for the time being that is a demon world. Porter: ‘ [Knock] Knock, knock. Knock. Who’s there in th’ other devil’s name? [Knock] The second half of the book is a great achievement of Milton’s poetical genius. The descriptions of Hell and Chaos, Satan’s flight through the hoary deep and his encounter with Sin and Death are unique things in the history of the world’s literature. Stopford Brooke , referring to the various diversions of the fallen angels in Hell, wrongly says, ~ “There is no true horror or pain in Milton’s Hell” That great critic, misled by the vivid personal narrative of Dante, fails to do adequate justice to the dim intimations of Milton. Not that there is any absence of pain and suffering in Milton’s hell, but that the infernal angels, unlike the poor human victims of Dante’s hell, struggle heroically against all adverse circumstances. His hell is a universe of death, a dark and dreadful region of unutterable woes. The howling of hailstorms, yelling of the condemned, fiery and icy torments and above all” gorgons and hydras, and chimeras dire” make that vast dolorous Antarctic region a concentrated essence of pains and horrors. Satan’s meeting with Sin and Death at Hell-gates is finely conceived. Though Addison and Johnson object to this intermixture of story and allegory, we find nothing wrong here. The great artist has so deftly interwoven this allegory into the fabric of history that we are scarcely conscious of any impropriety; further, who would lose such a fine episode simply on such a technical ground? The grim phantom of Death, half substance, half shadow, is unlike anything we find in literature. The picture of Chaos which Masson aptly calls “a sheer inconceivability” is a triumph of Milton’s poetic art. It is an immense waste of matter full of accumulated horrors and perplexities. It is the very wild stuff of which the ordered universe was made Milton’s Chaos simply overwhelms us with a sense of immensity and profundity. In the second half of the book the poet concentrates all his force on the solitary and dauntless figure of Satan. Against the horrors of Hell and the confusion of Chaos his masterful and heroic personality stands out like a huge and unassailable tower. Death cannot daunt him. Hell cannot horrify him; Chaos cannot confuse him. Nothing can stand in the way of this firm, fierce and fearless adversary of God and man. What a horrible picture is this! Hell trembles at his mighty strides. The description of his birth is also horrible. Conceived unnaturally he was born in an equally unnatural manner. He violently came out by ripping the womb of his mother who was so moved with fear and pain at this prodigious birth that her lower part was strangely transformed into the tail of a snake. Soon after this violent birth, the hideous phantom chased his mother by brandishing his fatal dart. There is the epic necessity that the important epic character should be sublime and that we should be interested in them but absolute evil is mean, and evokes no pleasure. Satan is, therefore, made a mixed character, with evil passions in which good still lingers. In the beginning Satan is selfish but with abrupt touches of unselfishness. He is proud, but his pride is for others as well as for himself. Though he is full of envy and malice, often he hates these passions in himself, He destroys but it is with difficulty he overcomes his pity for those he destroys. He brings war into Heaven, and despises Heaven, yet he loves its beauty. He is God’s enemy. Yet he allows God’s justice. He avenges himself, yet revenge is bitter. He ruins beauty but he regrets its loss in himself and admires it in others. Thus, we find that Satan is a mixed character in which there is good but evil pre-dominates and eventually the evil master the good. Milton’s inner soul vibrated to those powerful expressions of republican fervor that he puts on the lips of Satan. In the character of Satan, Milton has expressed his own pride, invisible temper, love for liberty, defiance of authority and heroic energy. Of good and evil much they argued then, Of happiness and final misery, Passion and apathy, and glory and shame: Vain wisdom all, and false philosophy. The strength of the portraiture of Satan is due to the fact that the poet is expressing himself through Satan. While portraying this character Milton projects himself into Satan and expresses his own indomitable personality through him. Milton himself was proud, and had stood against the tyranny of the king, and though his party had been defeated, he remained as courageous and defiant in the teeth of adversity as Satan. It is because Milton expressed his own feelings through Satan, that the portraiture of Satan’s character is so intense and powerful. Though Milton set out to justify the ways of God to man, yet, in spite of himself, he endowed Satan with great qualities, simply because Satan like himself, had opposed the ‘tyranny’ of the King of Heaven. Hence Blake remarked: “Milton was the Devil’s party without knowing it.” Milton became conscious of what he was doing as the poem proceeded. The character of Satan, with its greatness and grandeur, was militating against his avowed theme. Hence Milton restrained himself and showed the real character of Satan, the Arch devil. In the later books Satan degenerates into a cunning spy, imposter, and villain. But of, the figures of speech most usually associated with his name, and by which he takes his place alongside Homer and Virgil, is the simile. In the first place, he uses it chiefly to attain that remoteness and loftiness which his theme requires. ‘Almost all his figures and comparisons illustrate concrete objects by concrete objects, and occurrences in time by other occurrences later in time. His figures may be called historic parallels, whereby the names and incidents of human history are made to elucidate and ennoble the less familiar names and incidents of his prehistoric theme. But at, he prefers to maintain dignity and distance by choosing comparisons from ancient history and mythology, or from those great things in Nature which repel intimacy-the sun, the moon, the sea, planets in opposition, a shooting star, an evening mist, the gryphon pursuing the Arimaspian, the madness of Alcides in Oeta, and a hundred more reminiscences of the ancient world.’ Into the burning lake their baleful streams, Abhorred Styx, Milton’s Death is one of his admirable poetic achievements. It is a shapeless shape, a strange compromise between the shadow and the substance. It is a disembodied essence of all horrors, a shadowy substance, or a substantial shadow. Though Milton borrowed ideas from Spenser and other earlier poets his Death is far from being a mere imitation. By a few masterly touches of horrible magnificence he has succeeded in creating a deathless picture of Death which will never be forgotten by any lover of English poetry. With a shadowy crown on his shadowy head and a shadowy dart in his shadowy hand stands the grim King of terrors to oppose Satan. This fierce goblin is fearless and relentless and is rendered immeasurably repulsive by this unnatural lust and eternal hunger. When Satan calls him ‘hell-bore’ and ‘disdainfully asks him to clear out of his way,’ he with a grim retort calls him “hell-doomed” and thunders out. Might yield them easier habitation, bend Four ways their flying march, along the banks Of four infernal rivers, that disgorge He opposes Satan not because he is very faithful in his duty, but because it his pleasure to fight and destroy. He has not the intelligence of his mother and does not know that in fighting Satan he is going to serve God, his enemy. When Satan holds before the evil mother and her evil son a good prospect of ease and feast on earth, the hungry Death laughs with a horrible grin and gets reconciled to his father. He is the very essence of horror, vagueness and repulsion. This terrible goblin as depicted by Milton makes our blood freeze in our veins. He is a blunt, blustering, shadowy monster bent on destruction and owing allegiance to none. Devoid of the light of intelligence the blind brute only bestows uproariously. His shouts and movements, grisly appearance, bloodshot eyes, grinning teeth and brandishing dart make even Hell shake with fear. He is the undisputed monarch of the infernal pit. When Satan challenges him he fearlessly retorts. The repulsive goblin-son of the Devil and Sin is true to his progenitors. As his father held his own daughter in lustful embrace so he committed rape on his own mother. He is all passion, and is constantly swayed by anger, hunger and lust. Sometimes he pursues his mother with a lustful desire, and sometimes wants to devour her up. In brief he is the very essence of all conceivable monstrosities and a splendid triumph of Milton’s powerful poetic imagination. As when, to warn proud cities, war appears Waged in the troubled sky, and armies rush To battle in the clouds; The only prose which has escaped from the ‘dust and heat’ of controversy is Areopagitica, called after Areopagus, the hill of Ares where the Athenian parliament met. This speech for the liberty of unlicensed printing to the Parliament of England is couched in the form of a classical oration, beginning with a quotation from Euripides: ‘This is true liberty, when far-born men,/Having to advise the public, may speak free…’ Areopagitica, however, defends not free speech but a free press. It asks Parliament to stop the pre-publication ‘licensing’ of books, a practice begun by Henry VIII, abolished in 1641, but reimposed in 1643. A particular kind of liberty was one of Milton’s ideals, and his speech has noble sentences: “as good almost kill a man as kill a good book: who kills a reasonable creature, God’s image; but he who destroys a good book kills reason itself , kills the image of God , as it were, in the eye. Many a man lives a burden to the earth; but a good book in the precious life blood of a master-spirit, embalmed and treasured up on purpose to a life beyond life.” Thence more at ease their minds, and somewhat raised By false presumptuous hope, the ranged Powers Disband; At the Civil War, Milton turned from poetry to reforming prose, and toughened his argumentative powers. In his late poetry he dallied less with the ‘false surmise ‘of the classical poems which had charmed his youth and formed his style. Instead, he mythologized himself. After the Restoration and amnesty, he presents himself as ‘In darkness and in dangers compassed round,/ And solitude; yet not alone,’ for he was visited by the Heavenly Muse. This is from the Invocation to Paradise Lost, Book VII. The Invocations to Books I, III and IX put epic to plangent personal use, creating a myth of the afflicted poet as a blind seer, or as a nightingale, who ‘in shadiest covert hid,/ Tunes her nocturnal note.’ Leads him perplexed, where he may likeliest find Truce to his restless thoughts, and entertain The irksome hours, till his great chief return. Satan’s address to the Sun, written in 1642, appeared in Paradise Lost in 1667. The brief epic Paradise Regained and the tragedy Samson Agonistes followed in 1671. In thoughts more elevate, and reasoned high Of providence, foreknowledge, will, and fate, Fixed fate, free will, foreknowledge absolute, And found no end, in wandering mazes lost. Paradise Lost follows the Renaissance idea that poetry should set an attractive pattern of heroic virtue. Holding a humanist belief in reason and in the didactic role of the word, Milton turned argument back into poetry. In the European conversation of Renaissance, his was the last word. As well as relating the Fall, he attempted a more difficult task: ‘to justify the ways of God to men.’ he would retell the story of ‘Man’s first disobedience’ so as to show the justice of Providence. The result is, in its art, power and scope, the greatest of English poems. Dr. Johnson, no lover of Milton’s religion, politics or personality, concluded his Life thus: ‘His great works were performed under discountenance, and in blindness, but difficulties vanished at his touch; he was born of whatever is arduous; and his work is not the greatest of heroic poems, only because it is not the first.’ Paradise Lost is a work of grandeur and energy, and of intricate design. It includes in its sweep most of what was worth knowing of the universe and of history. The blind poet balanced details occurring six books apart. What if we find Some easier enterprise? There is a place (If ancient and prophetic fame in Heaven Err not), The beauty of the close does not end the discord of ‘where Lycid lies’, a deliberate false note. Such passionate question-and-answer is to mark all of Milton’s mature work. and, wandering, each his several way Pursues, as inclination or sad choice Milton’s early Protestant ideals now seem at odds with his sophisticated Italianate style. At court, Charles I patronized the baroque sculptor Bernini. This style, far from Puritan plainness, displays its art with the confidence of the Catholic Reformation. Milton wrote six sonnets in Italian, and English verse in an Italian way. The title Paradise Lost answers that of Tasso’s epic, Gerusalemme Conquisata (1592), ‘Jerusalem Won’: ‘God’s Englishmen’ were interested not in the old Christian reconquest of the earthly Jerusalem but in gaining the Heavenly Jerusalem. Milton embraced Renaissance and Reformation, Greek beauty and Hebrew truth. This embrace was strained in the 1630s as England’s cultural consensus came apart. In 1639 Milton abandoned a second year in Italy, returning from the place of Tasso’s patron in Naples to write prose in London. Although John Donne called Calvinist religion ‘plain, simple, sullen, young’, the first Puritan writer who was truly plain and simple was John Bunyan (1628-88). “How can I live without thee, how forgo Thy sweet converse and love so dearly joined, To live again in these wild woods forlorn?” He resolved ‘to be an interpreter and relater of the best and sagest things among mine own citizens throughout this island in the mother dialect.’
“Henceforth thou art the genius of the shore,
In thy large recompense, and shalt be good To all that wander in that perilous flood. Thus sang the uncouth swain…” The ‘heroic poem’ exemplified right conduct. There are several heroism: Adam and Eve, like the Son, show ‘the better fortitude/ Of patience and heroic martyrdom’ (IX.31-2) –not the individual heroism of Achilles or the imperial duty of Aeneas, nor yet the chivalry of the Italian romantic epics. The magnificence of Satan’s appearance and first speeches turns into envy and revenge. At the centre of the poem is an unglamorous human story, although ‘our first parents’ are ideal at first, as is their romantic love. “Love, sweetness, goodness in her person shined So clear, as in no face with more delight. But O as to embrace me she inclined I waked, she fled, and day brought back my night.” In IV, Eve says that Paradise without Adam would not be sweet. In IX, the Fall elaborates, the account in Genesis. Eve, choosing to garden alone, is deceived by the serpent’s clever arguments. She urges Adam to eat. ‘Not deceived’, he joins her out of love. Eve leads Adam to sin but also to repentance; blaming herself for the Fall, she proposes suicide. So hand in hand they passed, the loveliest pair That ever since in love’s embrace met, Adam the goodliest man of men since born His sons, the fairest of her daughters Eve. Milton’s self-vindication turns Scripture and tragedy into autobiography. For example, Dalilah betraying Samson to the Philistines recalls the first Mrs. Milton. Finally the persecuted hero pulls down the temple, slaying all his foes at once: ‘the world o’erwhelming to revenge his sight’ (Marvell). The last chorus, both Greek and Christians begins: ‘All is best, though we oft doubt/ What the unsearchable dispose/ Of highest wisdom brings about.’ It ends: His servants he with new acquist Of true experience from this great event With peace and consolation hath dismissed, And calm of mind, all passion spent. He is now with heaven’s ‘sweet societies/That sing, and singing in their glory move, / And wipe the tears forever from his eyes.’ Revealed faith consoles, unlike nature’s myth. Yet the poetry of nature returns. The third speaker is Mammon in whom the inordinate love for sordid wealth has crushed all higher thoughts and honorable instincts. He is a master of seductive logic. War is meaningless, because it can neither dethrone God nor reestablish them in Heaven. If God, out of pity, gave them back their place in Heaven, it will be unacceptable to them. For with God on the throne of Heaven they cannot reasonably expect any seat of honour there. They will have to serve the tyrant of Heaven as his slaves. So it is better to reign in Hell than to serve in Heave. Let them stand on their own legs and build a free and Magnificent Empire in Hell itself with the treasure of gold and precious stones with which Hell abounds. Did first create your leader, next, free choice With what besides in council or in fight Hath been achieved of merit, yet this loss, Thus far at least recovered, hath much more Established in a safe, unenvied throne, Yielded with full consent. In the magnificent Pandemonium all the infernal Peers have gathered together with grave faces and anxious minds to debate on the course of action to be adopted under the circumstances. Satan, the president of the council, sits high up on a splendid throne, full of ambition and pride. His brief inaugural address expresses his pride under the garb of humility. He was first in Heaven and is now first in Hell also. He hopes that nobody should envy him his place which he has by their choice and which involves the largest share of danger and suffering. He then asks the advice of his friends. Having been thus invited Moloch is the first spirit to speak. He is fierce and fiery and the very personification of brute force and blind anger. He does not talk subtlety and diplomacy, but would pay God back in his own coin by invading Heaven. They are already at their worst, and so need not fear anything worse. After him stands Belial, a soft and sinful slave, who prizes ease and luxury more than freedom and honour. In his opinion a reason for war, grounded in despair, is of itself a reason against war. Revenge is impossible and God is unconquerable. Any foolish attempt at revenge will only exasperate him further and bring down greater punishment on their poor heads. The wild talk of annihilation is as meaningless as it is undesirable and will bring no remedy whatsoever. He does not agree with Moloch in thinking that they are already at the worst. So his voice is for peace. Suffering is not vile; so let them suffer and wait. In the meantime God may abate his anger, or their pain lessen, or time may bring a better chance.
His proud imaginations thus displayed: Powers and Dominions, Deities of Heaven,..
Meanwhile Satan flies towards the nine fold gates of Hell and on reaching the entrance finds there two dreadful and repulsive figures-one half-woman, half snake and other a mere dark phantom with a deadly dart in its hand. Satan challenges this hideous shadow which at once flies into full fury and attacks him. When the fight is imminent the female form rushes forward with a hideous cry and tells Satan a nauseating story. She is Sin, his daughter, and the grim shadow is his son by her and is called Death. So, they being father and son should not fight. The artful fiend now flatters them, tells them of his mission and promises to take them to the Earth. Both creatures, specially Death, are maddened with joy at the bright prospect and the huge gate is opened. The happier state In Heaven, which follows dignity, might draw Envy from each inferior; but who here…..? The royal throne is surrounded by a group of metaphysical and mystical monsters. Satan apologises for his encroachment and explains his mission to Chaos who, grieving over the recent curtailment of his ancient empire of God helps him with directions. Satan flies on and sees the welcome light of Heaven far off shooting into chaos and the starry universe suspended from Heaven by a golden chain and looking like a star by the full moon. another world, the happy seat Of some new race, called Man, about this time To be created like to us, though less In power and excellence, Satan comes out and finds himself on the brink of the deep and dreadful gulf of Chaos which is all confusion and all tumult. There the elementary qualities are fighting with one another for supremacy and the embryo atoms are in deadly conflict. The dauntless fiend plunges head long into the hideous confusion and struggles onward with head, hands, legs and wings, sometimes blown thousand of miles up and sometimes hurled thousands of miles down till he reaches the very throne of Chaos and ancient Night , the hoary Anarch and his consort. Here confusion is worse confounded and horrors are piled upon horrors. ‘’Will envy whom the highest place exposes Foremost to stand against the Thunderer's aim Your bulwark, and condemns to greatest share Of endless pain? ‘’ His speech is universally appreciated, when Beelzebub, a great and wise statesman with grave eyes and furrowed forehead stands up to speak. He ridicules those who advocate direct war, or indulge in thoughts of peace, or build vain empires in Hell. God is the lord of Heaven as well as of Hell. He is not going to allow them any peace or liberty of action in Hell. The policy of war has failed; so there is only one course left open for them- that of indirect revenge. Perhaps by this time the new World has been created. They would ruin its inhabitants whom God likes so much. But someone must volunteer to undertake the quest. As nobody dares come forward Satan boldly offers himself for the task and asks the infernal angels to await his return and beguile the time in any way they like. The council is dissolved, Satan departs, and the fallen spirits take to various diversions. Some indulge in physical feats, some in philosophical and theological discourses, some in music and songs, and some in bold adventures of discovery. The last party traverses the various gloomy regions of Hell. They see the four terrible infernal rivers, and the fifth, Lethe, rolling its slow waters at a great distance. Beyond this river they see a dark, dismal and dreadfully cold expanse of perpetual snow where the damned souls are periodically brought by the furies from the extreme heat of the hell-fire to be tormented by extreme cold. Milton’s Satan is endowed with heroic qualities. The outstanding trait of his character is courage. He may be wrong headed: but he has infinite courage in himself. As the poem, Paradise Lost begins, we find Satan in a hopeless situation. He and his companions have been hurled down into b the bottomless pit of Hell. He lies dazed and stunned in the Lake of liquid fire and so do his companions, the rebel angels. Heaven is lost to Satan and his companions, and they are doomed to live forever in the darkness of Hell. But of, this gloomy prospect of the future does not fill Satan with despondency robbing him of his power of action. When Beelzebub, his lieutenant, tells him that their situation is hopeless beyond redemption, he replies. Satan is determined not to be weak under any circumstances. If one retains his courage and strength of mind, he “can make a Heaven of Hell, a Hell of Heaven.” Even in Hell Satan discovers an advantage. High on a throne of royal state, which far Outshone the wealth or Ormus and of Ind, Or where the gorgeous east with richest hand Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold, Satan exalted sat, by merit raised To that bad eminence; Satan alone occupies a prominent position in the narrative. According to the strict rules of dramatic art, Satan should be the villain of the piece. To a certain extent, Paradise Lost is symbolic of the never ending, conflict between good and evil in the life of man., and Satan is thus the type of universal evil and wickedness. In one sense, Satan is the most important character in the poem because it is from his agency that practically all the action of the narrative arises. The revolt which Satan stirs up in Heaven leads to the fall of the angels in the first place; the decision which he comes to, to tempt the newly created human pair, leads to further action in Paradise Lost. Such being the case, Milton had to necessarily bring Satan prominently before the reader more prominently indeed than any other character. So we might say that the theme or narrative which Milton selected for Paradise Lost depended for its action on the deeds of a wicked character, rather than a hero. The problem for Milton was the manner in which he was to present such an evil character. The sight of pure, and undisguised evil is never pleasant, and the acts of a wicked person cause feelings of disgust and repulsion to right-minded readers. So Milton would have risked losing the sympathy and interest of his readers had he presented Satan as an unattractive study in wickedness. It seems then, that Milton realized this danger and refrained from blackening the characters of Satan unduly. Not only so, but he depicts Satan as possessing many qualities which are good, noble and wholly admirable. It is this point which has made the character of Satan unique and has aroused so much discussion among critics. Celestial virtues rising will appear More glorious and more dread than from no fall, And trust themselves to fear no second fate. There can be no doubt that Satan is meant to be the villain. He is throughout called names like “arch-fiend”. “arch-enemy”, “apostate angel” “the adversary of God and man”, “the author of all ill”, “the spirit malign”,” the fraudulent imposter foul”, etc. His rebellion against God was due to Pride and his desire to continue the war of Envy, Revenge and love of Evil. He is crafty, - “the warie fiend”- and his plan to corrupt mankind is one of “covert guile”. He is cunning in his appeal to his followers which has only a “semblance of worth.” Satan embodies evil because he is the embodiment of disobedience to God. God allows him to work his “dark design” in order to give further scope, for divine goodness and to bring worse punishment on him. Satan has great anxiety for his followers. It is the trait of a great general of any army, to think of the welfare of his followers even before he think of his own safety. All great warriors and conquerors were able to inspire their followers with loyalty and devotion which make them ready to suffer and die for their leader. In return, the chief guard cherishes them as if they were all his own brothers or children. This feeling of chivalry overcomes Satan as he sees his unconscious friends lying in profound slumber all round him. He cannot forget that they had met this cruel fate because of their devotion to him. He cannot forget that they had met this cruel fate because of their devotion to him. He sees their self-sacrifice as heroic in its essence. So he, is represented as shedding tears of sympathy for them-Tears such as angels weep. This is pathetic fallacy since angels cannot weep at all. Satan flatters them on the concord they have thus easily attained, which would never have been possible in Heaven. Let them design therefore with one mind how best to regain their lost positions. Whether the best way should be open war, or secret deceit, let them determine, and he affords the opportunity now for others to speak. ‘These, then, here outlined slightly and imperfectly, are some of the most noteworthy features of Milton’s style. By the measured roll of this verse, and the artful distribution of stress and pause to avoid monotony and to lift the successive lines in a climax; by the deliberate and choice character of his diction , and his wealth of vaguely emotional epithets; by the intuition which taught him to use no figures that do not heighten the majesty, and no names that do not help the music of his poem; by the vivid outlines of the concrete imagination that he imposes on us for real, and the cloudy brilliance that he weaves for them out of all great historical memories, and all far-reaching abstract conceptions, he attained to a finished style of perhaps a more consistent and unflagging elevation that is to be found elsewhere in literature. There is nothing to put beside him. “His natural port,” says Johnson “is a gigantic loftiness.” And Landor: “After I have been reading the Paradise Lost, I can take up no other poet with satisfaction. I seem to have left the music of Handel for the music of the streets, or, at best, for drums and fifes.” The secret of the style is lost; and no poet, since Milton’s day, has recaptured the solemnity and beauty of the large utterance of Gabriel, or Belial, or Satan.’ (Masson) Even in defeat he will never dream of submission. The fierceness of the punishment inflicted on him is mitigated by the greater fierceness of his pride.
..and, from despair
Thus high uplifted beyond hope, aspires… !
SELF SETTING, DEVELOPMENT, ON-CONTEXTS, EDITING, THOUGHTS AND MORE ALIKE, -WORDS AND SENTENCES FROM DR.S.SEN, WEB-LINKS OF THE ORIGINAL POEM AND IMAGES, BOOKS ON WORDSWORTH AND SHELLEY AND COLERIDGE’S POEM, A HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE…
RITUPARNA RAY CHAUDHURI.
“….The second book is full of great ‘things’ (to use Saintsbury’s favourite phrase), the debate, Satan’s heroic choice of the phrase, Chaos, his encounter with Sin and Death: “on the other side Inces’t with indignation Satan stood Unterrifi’d, and like a Comet burn’d That fires the length of Ophiucus huge In th’ Artick sky, and from his horrid hair Shakes pestilence and war.”…. H.J.C. Grierson
“The poetry of the earth is never dead.” ...WHEN I KNEW IN MIDST OF RECOGNITION THANKS>http://a.academia-assets.com/images/apple-touch-icon.png
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Jul 24, 2014 · Rituparna Ray Chaudhuri. … But of, the position has now changed and English today finds a place in the lost of the chief
When I went through Act I ScI and Sc III of Shakespeare's play 'T'Merchant of Venice along my students', they asked me "Mam,how far do you agree Antonio,as the rich merchant of Venice? If so a rich, why he couldnot help his friend in proper time? Shall you call of the same richness to Shylock, the Jew? Explain us from ActI, Sc I and Sc III of the play."
WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE’S, THE MERCHANT OF VENICE- THE WAY I HAVE ADMIRED MYSELF TO THINK AT ‘WHO THE MERCHANT ON REGARD TO THE PLAY IS’ - ___________________________________________________ (I TRIED TO COMBINE THE NATIVE WORK WITH A-CONTEXTUAL METAPHOR TO PORTRAIT THE LOCAL COLOUR OF THE DRAMA: ON BASIS OF‘TWO LEGENDS RESPECTIVELY’)
“AFTER ONLY MEMORIZING THE DETAIL OF ORIGINAL SHAKESPEARIAN DRAMA, THE MERCHANT OF VENICE”- BASED ON THE PLAY THAT ONLY, UPHELD ‘’MY, PERSONAL- DETAIL- SETTING OF THOUGHTS WITH OWN ANALYSIS, ALONG WITH AFEW CHANGES ON REFERENTIAL-TRUTH” -
SHYLOCK
“My daughter! O my ducats! O my daughter! Fled with a Christian ! O my Christian ducats!” Portia in the Trial Scene, gives Shylock every chance to escape from the punishment to which he would become liable if she feels compelled to pronounce the judgement which she has already decided upon and planned for the rescue of Antonio from his clutches. She tempts Shylock with offer of money, but fails in her effort. She appeals to him to show mercy to Antonio; but here too she fails. Indeed her “Quality of Mercy” speech would have moved the stoniest of hearts that she gives a strictly literal interpretation of the bond in order to save an innocent man. It is her ingenuity that saves Antonio’s life, we cannot help feeling that she allows the Christians to impose upon Shylock the maximum punishment which is permissible under the law though they certainly spare his life. We would have admired her even more if she had allowed Shylock to withdraw from the court when he says that he is willing to wash his hands of the whole affair, and would no longer stay to discuss the matter. But of, she stops him, saying that the law has yet another hold upon him, and it is at this point that Christians treat the Jew with nearly the same cruelty with which he had wanted to treat Antonio. ANTONIO, the merchant of the play’s title. He is good and generous man, who promises to pay Shylock the money, borrowed by Bassanio or else allow Shylock to cut off a pound of his flesh. His part in the play is rather a passive one, and he reveals his character mainly in his generousity to his friend and in his hatred of the Jew. (Oxford Edition: Shakespeare)
Grieve not that I am fallen to this for you; For herein Fortune shows herself more kind Than is her custom: it is still her use To let the wretched man outlive his wealth, To view with hollow eye and wrinkled brow An age of poverty; Portia is one character who, at the beginning of the play, resents the situation in which she is placed. Her father, who is now dead, devised a test for selecting the man that his daughter should marry; in Portia’s words, ‘the will of a living daughter [is] curbed by the will of a dead father.’ Fortunately for Portia, the right man makes the right choice, and she is given to the man she loves. Portia does not think to question a man’s right to the ownership of all his wife’s possessions; in fact, she seems glad when she tells Bassanio, ‘But now I was the lord Of this fair mansion, master of my servants, Queen o’er myself ; and even now, but now, This house, these servants, and this same myself Are yours, my lord’s.’ One of the most characteristic features of Shakespeare’s use of the English language is BOLDNESS. It is a predominant feature of his art as a poet. Another trait in Shakespeare’s language is the proximity of his poetical diction to his ordinary prose. He uses very few poetical diction to his ordinary prose. He uses very few poetical words or forms, and he achieves his finest poetical effect without stepping outside his ordinary vocabulary and grammar. “The greatness of Shakespeare’s influence does not consist in the number of new words which he added to the literary vocabulary… but in the multitude of phrases derived from his writings which have entered into the texture of the diction of literature and daily conversation. If, therefore, Shakespeare has not enriched the language with many new words, he has certainly enriched it with a very large number of significant phrases and almost proverbial expressions” which have become household words. “It is in a multitude of phrases, above all else, that Shakespeare’s language may be said to live in the full sense of the word.” We use these words almost daily without the slightest knowledge that they have come from the immortal pen of Shakespeare.
SCENE AT A GLANCE IN ACT I SCENE 1: Antonio, Salarino and Salenio and his other friends discuss the cause of Antonio’s sadness but fail to understand it. > Dangers of the sea, love, concern for public opinion and need to appear wise are suggested as causes; all of which Antonio rejects.> After the other friends leave, Bassanio discloses to Antonio his need for money to marry Portia.> Antonio declares that he has no money at hand because all of it is being used for trading. > Antonio offers his name or reputation to raise money for Bassanio. All the theatres of London during the Elizabethan era had individual differences; yet their common function necessitated a similar general plan. The public theatres were three stories high, and built around an open space at the centre. Usually polygonal in plan to give an overall rounded effect, the three levels of inward- facing galleries overlooked the open centre, into which jutted the stage- essentially a platform surrounded on three sides by the audience, only the rear being restricted for the entry and exit of the actors and seating for the musicians. The upper level behind the stage was used as a balcony. SCENE AT A GLANCE IN ACT I SCENE 2: Portia and Nerissa discuss Portia’s father’s will according to which her suitors must choose one of the three caskets in order to win her. > Some of the suitors have already come in the hope of marrying her; but Portia makes fun of them and shows her dislike. > Nerissa reminds her of Bassanio whom she had found quite attractive. Shakespeare’s boldness in sentence-structure is also an obvious characteristic. Language is not merely a matter of words and inflections. There are many conventional features which form an essential part of the language-matters of idiom and usage that defy explanation or logical classification. There are some bold features with regard to sentence-structure which we often meet with in Shakespeare. There are a few phrases reminiscent of Shakespeare whose use in Modern English has been based on misunderstanding. Such phrases have remained in currency and are now found with a meaning other than that which Shakespeare had intended. These phrases are misapplied in Modern English. Shakespeare is the greatest master of English poetry and as such has wielded a great influence over the English language as well as over poetic and archaic language generally. No other individual writer has exercised so much influence on the English language as Shakespeare has done. His influence on the language is very much akin to that of the Bible translations. When, in the Trial Scene, the Duke asks Shylock to relent and show pity on Antonio, Shylock replies: -And by our holy Sabbath have I sword “My writing on the subject of ‘The Merchant of Venice’ with a more analytical view would never been possible without the ‘tremendous’ curiosity and ecstasy in knowing of and at listening to the play happened to majority of my students. They had a keen interest in knowing from me whom do, I only, think after the play as Real Merchant of Venice: therefore, the real hero only accords to the play..…!”- Rituparna Ray Chaudhuri.
Date and Text
1596 is the most likely date for The Merchant of Venice, for in that year a wealthy Spanish ship was much in the news. The ship had run aground in the harbor at Cadiz, where it was captured and brought to England. It is this event that Salerio is referring to in Act 1, Scene 1, lines 25-9:
I should not see the sandy hour-glass run,
But I should think of shallows and of flats,
And see my wealthy Andrew dock'd in sand,
Vailing her high-top lower than her ribs
To kiss her burial.
The earliest text of the play was the Quarto published in 1600, and this is followed in the present edition- Oxford Shakespeare.
Shylock is one of Shakespeare’s most interesting creations from the point of view of language. Even though there were Jews in England during Shakespeare’s time their number was not large enough to enable the hearers to be familiar with the Jewish type of language or any Anglo-Jewish dialect that might have developed. If that were so then this dialect could have been put into Shylock’s mouth. But of, there is not a single trait in Shylock’s language which can be called distinctly Jewish. And yet Shakespeare has successful in creating for Shylock a language different from that of anybody else. This creation of a new language only for Shylock which was not the Jewish type and which was not regular in the Shakespearean language has stamped the character with a peculiar mark of individuality not to be found in any other character. Shylock has his Old Testament at his finger’s ends: When Antonio comes to Shylock for the loan, Shylock begins his reference to Jacob’s (in the Old Testament) way of making profits and starts citing Scripture for his purpose (M.V. I.III.67-68) He defends his own way of making money breed like Jacob’s thrift in breeding lambs: On being asked by Antonio if Jacob charged interest as Shylock did, Shylock tries to defend his charging interest no doubt, but not exactly in the way in which Jacob made his profits(M.V. I.III.71-82) He swears by Jacob’s staff and the holy Sabbath: When dining out Shylock says to Jessica:-
“By Jacob’s staff, I swear,
I have no mind of feasting forth tonight;
But I will go”.
(The reference is to Genesis XXXII, 10 where Jacob says-“With my staff I passed over the Jordan”)
SCENE AT A GLANCE IN ACT I SCENE 3: Antonio is forced to borrow money from Shylock whom he has insulted for years.> After initial hesitation, Shylock agrees to loan Antonio. > Not for interest, but under a special agreement, a ‘bond’.> According to the bond, if Antonio fails to repay his debt in time, Shylock will have the right to remove one pound in weight of Antonio’s flesh. Shylock, the money-lender who is hated because he is a Jew, explains how prejudice works. He calls it ‘affection’, and shows the relationship between prejudice and the emotions: “affection, Master of passion, sways it to the mood Of what it likes and loathes.’’ Certain words like thou, thee, ‘tis, mine eyes, morrow ,etc., now form parts of the conventional language of poetry; but Shakespeare uses them in poetry not because they are parts of the conventional language of poetry, but because they are parts of the conventional language of poetry, but because these were everyday colloquialisms during his time. ANTONIO Believe me, no: I thank my fortune for it, My ventures are not in one bottom trusted, Nor to one place; nor is my whole estate Upon the fortune of this present year: Therefore my merchandise makes me not sad.
To have the due and forfeit of my bond. - (M.V. IV. I., 36-38) (To Note: Swearing by holy Sabbath is a characteristically Jewish oath); He again tauntingly addresses his servant Launcelot by calling him: “Hagar’s (servant of Sarah, Abraham’s wife) offspring.”He is afraid of violating an oath which is an offence according to the Jewish Scriptures: When Portia offers Shylock three thousand ducats, he bluntly declines the offer, saying:“An oath, an oath, I have an oath in heaven; Shall I lay perjury upon my soul?” (M.V. IV. I., 231-32)(N.B. Violation of an oath was severely condemned by the Jewish Scriptures)He uses some Biblical words which do not occur elsewhere in Shakespeare: Synagogue (place of worship) (III. 1. 115) Nazarite (inhabitant of Nazareth) (1. III.32) Publican (Roman tax-collector, an object of contempt to the Jews) (1. III.38).He uses some words or constructions a little different from the accepted use of his time: Advantage (in place of ‘interest’ which was the accepted use).
SCENE AT A GLANCE IN ACT 2 SCENE 2: Launcelot is taunted by his conscience to leave Shylock’s service and join the service of Bassanio. > Launcelot decides to do it. > He meets his own father and taunts him by pretending to br dead for fun. >Launcelot meets Bassanio and enters his service. > Gratiano persuades Bassanio to let him go with him to Belmont, to which Bassanio agrees. “The setting of a play is significant as it provides the necessary back drop for the events to occur and provides the mood and meaning to the work of art. The action of The Merchant of Venice takes place in Venice and in Belmont, away from the Elizabethan audience of England. Both the places are remote to London and their remoteness gives the play a romantic colouring. Adventurous merchants like Antonio were highly honoured in the Elizabethan Age, an Age known for travel and discovery. Bassanio, represents such a young spendthrift who used to live a splendid and extravagant life which many a times, perhaps, were much beyond the means. On the other hand, we see Shylock as a traditional figure of the Jewish moneylender. He is shown not merely as a Jew in the play, but a Jew in the Christian society who is oppressed and hated as Shylock himself mentions in the course of the play.”- Self, Edited from Workbook. SCENE AT A GLANCE IN ACT 2 SCENE 5: Shylock tells Jessica to lock up ther house while he goes to sup with Bassanio. > Shylock fears that something is wrong.> But of, he is pleased that Launcelot has left his service and joined the service of Bassanio. > Shylock leaves to dine, Left alone, Jessica bids farewell to her father.> Jessica is at home and her father absolutely trusts her, which serves to heighten her betrayal. Usance (in place of ‘usuary’, ‘interest on loan’ which was the accepted use).Moneys (plural) (in place of ‘money’)Equal (in place of ‘exact which was the accepted use).Estimable (in place of ‘exact which was the accepted use).Rheum (in place of ‘saliva’ which was the accepted use).Fulsome (in pace of ‘lustful’ which was the accepted use).He alone uses some words not used by anybody else:Eanling (young lamb) (I.III.76);Misbeliever (unbeliever) ((I.III.100);Bane (rare use of the word as verb meaning ‘to kill by poison) (IV.I. 46)his syntax is peculiar: Rent out(where the mind should only be ‘rend’) ; (II, V. 5)So following (where ‘and so forth’ is the regular Shakespearian phrase) (I.III.34)I have no mind of feasting forth tonight (where it should be ‘no mind to’) (II.V. 37) SALARINO My wind cooling my broth Would blow me to an ague, when I thought What harm a wind too great at sea might do. Jespersen explains the position of English held a few centuries ago by quoting a few extracts from different writers of old. Only two or three centuries ago, he says, English was spoken by so few people that no one could dream of its ever becoming a world language. It was observed by one English writer in 1582 that “the English tongue is of small reach, stretching no further than this land of ours.” An Italian comment was that “it was worthless beyond Dover.” There were various other observations about the English language at that time or even later which pointed to the fact that no one abroad could read the writings of the English authors and even those who “learned English by necessity forgot it”, and there were a “small number of scholars on the continent able to read English.” In the early part of the eighteenth century was published a dictionary of four chief languages of Europe in which English had no place. These were Italian, French, German and Latin. But of, the position has now changed and English today finds a place in the lost of the chief languages because political, social and literary importance it is second to none and because it is the mother tongue of a greater number of human beings than any of its competitors. SCENE AT A GLANCE IN ACT 2 SCENE 6 Gratiano and Salarino wait outside Shylock’s house in a street in Venice, waiting for Lorenzo. > Lorenzo is supposed to meet Jessica and elope.> Lorenzo arrives late and apologizes to his friends. > Jessica arrives cross-dressed as a boy with some of Shylock’s money and wealth. Jessica and Lorenzo elope.> Antonio meet Gratiano and informs him that the party is called off and Bassanio and Gratiano are sail to Belmont as soon as possible as the wind has changed and it is the right time to sail.
The reason for this boldness of syntax is that Shakespeare did not write his plays to be read and dwelt on by the eye but to be heard by a sympathetic audience. Shakespeare’s syntax, therefore is unfettered by bookish impositions. The drama represents the unstudied utterance of people under all kinds and degrees of emotion, pain and passion. Its syntax, to be truly representative, must be familiar, conversational, spontaneous; hot studied and formal. Thus we find that in Shylock’s language there are many deviations from Shakespeare’s ordinary language, many expressions used by Shylock alone and by none other of his characters. It shows, therefore, that Shakespeare made Shylock’s language peculiar on purpose to stamp him as a being out of the common sort and in order to mark him off as a Jew from the common Christian. The Prince of Morocco confronts Portia with a powerful argument against prejudice. Find a fair skinned northern prince, he urges her, and let the two of them ‘make incision’ in their flesh. From both bodies, the blood that flows will be re the argument is taken up in a later scene by Shylock, and the opening lines of Shylock’s speech are often quoted to demonstrate Shakespeare’s lack of prejudice and refusal to discriminate against individuals on grounds of race or religion.
SCENE AT A GLANCE IN ACT 2 SCENE 7: The Prince of Morocco arrives at Portia’s household to make his choice of casket.> He ponders over the inscriptions on each of the casket aloud. > He chooses the gold casket and finds a skull in it. > Being unsuccessful, the Prince of Morocco leaves the place. > Portia sees it as a ‘gentle’ riddance. SHYLOCK, a money-lender, who is hated for his greed and because he is a Jew. He is Antonio’s enemy, and when Bassanio’s money is not repaid he demands the pound of flesh that Antonio promised as a forfeit… (Oxford Edition: Shakespeare)
When it is paid according to the tenor. It doth appear you are a worthy judge; You know the law, your exposition Hath been most sound: In The Merchant of Venice Shakespeare acknowledges the existence of prejudice, and he makes use of it to suit his dramatic ends. He was an entertainer, not a reformer. His play cannot be read as propaganda for the abolition of prejudice; at most, it recommends that we should sometimes remember there is a human being inside the skin. The different social classes are clearly indicated in The Merchant of Venice, but the linguistic ‘markers’ that Shakespeare uses are not as familiar to a twentieth-century audience as they were to Shakespeare’s contemporaries. The pronouns ‘you’ and ‘thou’ are very significant, and almost imperceptibly define the relationships between the characters. ‘You’ is neutral, formal and polite, whilst ‘thou’ is affectionate, condescending, or contemptuous. Bassanio always speaks to Antonio as ‘you’, but to Gratiano as ‘thou’; Antonio mostly uses the formal word, but with Bassanio he allows himself the occasional ‘thou’ of affection, and with Shylock the dismissive ‘thou’ of contempt. As long as Old Gobbo believes that he is speaking to a young gentleman, he adopts the ‘you’ which is appropriate when addressing a superior; but when he knows he is speaking to his son, his recognition is expressed through the pronoun: ‘I’ll be sworn if thou be Launcelot…’is by such small details that English social status is revealed. SCENE AT A GLANCE IN ACT 2 SCENE 8 Salarino and Salanio reveal that Bassanio has left for Belmont. > Lorenzo and Jessica havenot accompanied them. > Shylock comes to know of the elopement and goes to the Duke of Venice to get the ship searched. > Antonio at the dock assures the Jew of the elopers’ absence in the ship. >Shylock is confounded by the loss of his wealth and the elopement of his daughter. > Salarino reports that he has come to know that a Venetian ship has sunk in the English Channel. > Salanio asks Salarino to convey the news to Antonio carefully. “This fastidiousness, this hatred of excess, did much to shape his common-sense and middle-of-the-road politics. The qualities he most disliked were pretentiousness and hypocrisy. His central belief was in the natural discipline of an ordered hypocrisy. His central belief was in the natural discipline of an ordered society, that order being proclaimed by the nature of the universe, the monarchy stood to the nation as the heavens to the earth, while the stars in their courses proclaimed the scared necessity of a stable regimen.” Ivor Brown: Belief in Order and Discipline. SCENE AT A GLANCE IN ACT 2 SCENE 9 The Prince of Arragon comes with his servants to Belmont, to Portia’s household. > The Prince of Arragon tries his luck and chooses the silver casket which contains an idiot’s head.> He has chosen wrong casket and leaves immediately.> A servant brings the news that a young Venetian has come to Belmont. The Merchant of Venice confirms Shylock as a villain, as monstrous a creature as any in the drama of Shakespeare’s time. Indeed, English drama since the seventeenth century has failed to produce Shylock’s equal. The Jew was a figure hated and feared by the Elizabethans, but the reasons for their hatred are not at all simple. Superstitions was a main one, arising out of medieval legends such as that of St. Hugh of Lincoln, a little boy who was rare, but religion gave the English Christians a good excuse for persecuting the foreigners who had come to live amongst them. Dislike of the aliens was intensified by the prosperity of some Jews, whose success in business enterprises sometimes made the native English dependent on the immigrants. Parallel cases of suspicion and jealousy are not hard to find in the modern world. SCENE AT A GLANCE IN ACT 3 SCENE 2: Bassanio has arrived at Belmont. He is about to choose the casket. > Portia asks him to take the necessary time, but Bassanio hastens to choose the casket. Portia also expresses her love for Bassanio, but aside. > He chooses the correct casket (the lead) amidst a song about the difference between appearance and reality; and wins Portia. Clerk [Reads] Your grace shall understand that at the receipt of your letter I am very sick: but in the instant that your messenger came, in loving visitation was with me a young doctor of Rome; his name is Balthasar. SCENE AT A GLANCE IN ACT 3 SCENE 3: Helpless, trapped Antonio is walking around in the streets of Venice bound by a jailor.> Shylock takes delight at seeing him helpless. Antonio pleas for mercy, but Shylock is in no mood to listen to Antonio’s pleas. > Shylock insists that he wants his bond and nothing else. >Antonio does not see any prospect of escaping the Jew’s merciless aims as Venetian laws approve of it. > Antonio only hopes that Bassanio will be there with him in his final hour. The question which now arises as whether ‘this title is appropriate and whether Antonio is really the hero of the play. Shylock is certainly the most towering personality in the play even though in the court scene he is eclipsed and vanquished by Portia. Portia undoubtedly defeats him, thwarts him, and renders him absolutely helpless; but till this point in the play it reached it was Shylock who had impressed us as the most dynamic and the most formidable person in the play. And yet he cannot be designated as the hero of the play because hero must have a certain degree of moral goodness in him while Shylock is a malicious and revengeful man. Shylock is a usurer and usuary is definitely a stigma on the name of a man. Besides, Shylock is a fanatical Jew who is intolerant of Christians; he is a miser in whose service Lancelot is farnished; he is a tyrannical cunning, crafty, heartless, merciless and vindictive man. Such an individual cannot be called the hero of the play or the novel. Antonio on the other hand does possess certain specific virtues and is morally far superior to Shylock even though he suffers from a couple of faults and failings such as a melancholy and sullen nature and religious fanaticism. Antonio is kind-hearted and generous to needy persons; and he is a very devoted friend of Bassanio. He enjoys an excellent reputation in Venice and the Duke has a high opinion about him. It was therefore only the right course for Shakespeare to have named the play for Antonio. Shylock took the story of Shylock’s bond from an Italian novel, but the money-lending Jew in this source has no personality, and no daughter. Consequently, we can assume that Shylock is Shakespeare’s own creation: all the personality traits that we find in him were deliberately worked out by the dramatist, and not bore rowed accidentally along the plot.
SCENE AT A GLANCE IN ACT 3 SCENE 4: Portia decides to assist Antonio and makes a plan. > She asks Lorenzo and Jessica to be the in charge of her house, which they accept. > Portia sends her servant Balthazar to Padua for information from the legal expert, Doctor Bellario, and asks him to be quick. > Portia tells Nerissa that both of them will cross dress, and on the way to Venice she will disclose the future plans to her. “A dramatist is no more able than anybody else to bestow upon his characters talents which he does not himself possess. If – as critics are agreed- Shakespeare’s characters show humour, Shakespeare must have a sense of humour himself. But a man’s humour and fancy are functions of his character as well as of his reason. To appreciate them clearly is to know how he feels as well as how he argues: what are the aspects of life which especially impress him, and what morals are most congenial. I do not see how the critic can claim an instructive perception of the Shakespearean mode of thought without a perception of some sides of his character. You distinguish Shakespeare’s work from his rivals’ as confidently as any expert judging of hand-writing. You admit, too, that you can give a very fair account of the characteristics of the other writer. Then surely you can tell me-or at least you know “implicitly”- what is the quality in which they are defective and Shakespeare pre-eminent.” (Leslie Stephen: Self – Revelation) The action of the play takes place in Venice and in Belmont. Belmont is imaginary, but Venice is real. The city is located on the sea coast in the north of Italy, and is in fact built over a lagoon. Its main streets are canals, and the only vehicles are boats. In the sixteenth century, Venice was the centre for international trade, importing goods from all corners of the earth, and exporting them in the same way. We are told that Antonio, the greatest of the merchants, is waiting for his ships to return- From Tripolis, from Mexico, and England, From Lisbon, Barbary and India. To be successful, a merchant had to invest his money wisely-and have luck on his side. Trading by sea was hazardous, and a sudden storm, or unseen rocks, could easily wreck a ship and drown the merchant’s gopes along with the cargo. (Oxford -Shakespeare). NERISSA, Portia’s lady-in-waiting, who falls in love with Gratiano. When Portia goes to Venice as a lawyer, Nerissa accompanies her, dressed as a lawyer’s clerk. (Oxford Edition: Shakespeare)
If he should offer to choose, and choose the right casket, you should refuse to perform your father's will, if you should refuse to accept him.
Shylock starts from a double disadvantage, as far as an Elizabethan audience was concerned. He is a Jew, and he is a money lender. There were not many Jews in England, but in Middle Ages English Christians hated Jews, and this feeling was still strong in the sixteenth century, the Elizabethans also hated the traditional Jewish profession of usury- the lending of money for profit, Jews were often forbidden to own land or to engage in trade in England; consequently the only lucrative profession open to them was money-lending. The Christians deplored this-in theory. In practice, the expanding economy of the times demanded that money should be readily available. Shakespeare does not let us see Shylock in his first frenzy of distress when he finds that Jessica is missing, because this would surely arouse her sympathy. Instead, Solanio describes the scene, and the audience is encouraged. To share in his laughter. From Solanio’s account, it seems that Shylock’s grief over the loss of his daughter is equaled, perhaps even surpassed, by his anger at the theft of his money. He utters ‘a passion so confused’. SCENE AT A GLANCE IN ACT 3 SCENE 5: Launcelot and Jessica talk humorously. > Lorenzo joins them and asks Jessica what she thinks of Portia.> Jessica praises Bassanio’s heavenly fortune in winning Portia’s hand. To show excessive care for position is ill-mannered, and the Prince of Arragon’s lengthy discourse on rank shows him to be merely vulgar: he is himself the ‘blinking idiot’ that he finds in the casket. He speaks proudly of his dark skin, the ‘shadow’d’ livery of the burnish’d sun’, and in his dignity we can feel Shakespeare’s admiration for the character he has created and the people whom the Prince represents. Yet he is unacceptable as a suitor for Portia; her conversation with him leaves few doubts in our minds, and her relief when he chooses the wrong casket is unmistakable: ‘Let all of his complexion choose me so.’ Shylock’s viciousness transcends his Jewishness, and it would be unfair to cite this character as an example of Shakespeare’s racial prejudice. But of, we can find this surrounding Shylock’s daughter. We are sympathetic to Jessica, yet we are never allowed to forget that she is a Jew. The reminders are always affectionate, and some-times funny- as when Launcelot reproaches Lorenzo for converting Jessica, ‘for in converting Jews to Christians you raise the price of pork’. Laughter can take away the cruelty of prejudice, but it helps to reinforce in an audience the awareness of difference. A happy ending for the leading characters is essential for a romantic comedy such as The Merchant of Venice. But of, one very important character is left out of the general rejoicing in Act 5. Shylock has been defeated of his bond, robbed of his ducats, and deserted by his daughter; he is even compelled to give up his birth right, his Jewish religion, and become one of the Christians whom he so much hates. Does he deserve this fate? Is The Merchant of Venice a comedy for all the other characters, but a tragedy for Shylock? The action of the play takes place in Venice and in Belmont. Belmont is imaginary, but Venice is real. The city is located on the sea coast in the north of Italy, and is in fact built over a lagoon. Its main streets are canals, and the only vehicles are boats .in the sixteenth century, Venice was the centre for international trade, importing goods from all corners of the earth, and exporting them in the same way. We are told that Antonio, the greatest of the merchants, is waiting for his ships to return. To be successful, a merchant had to invest his money wisely- and have luck on his side. Trading by sea was hazardous, and a sudden storm, or unseen rocks, could easily wreck a ship and drown the merchant’s hopes along with the cargo.
SCENE AT A GLANCE IN ACT 4 SCENE 1: In a Venetian court presided over by the Duke, Shylock refuses to forgo his claim to a pound of Antonio’s flesh, in spite of repeated pleas from the Duke and Antonio. > The Duke seeing that the course of the trial is taking a harsh turn is about to dismiss the court, when cross dressed Nerissa enters as the Lawyer’s clerk. > Portia, disguised as a doctor of law, enters the court and makes a speech in praise of mercy, but Shylock is unmoved. > Portia then pronounces that he is entitled to Antonio’s pound of flesh-but the exact one pound neither more nor less; he is not entitled to shed any blood.> Shylock falls in his own trap and asks for three times the amount which is denied by Portia saying that it is not there in the bond. > The principal amount is also denied as Shylock has refused it in open court. > Shylock is frustrated when Portia also declares that his own life and goods are forfeit as according to Venetian laws when an outsider plans to kill a Venetian citizen it is the punishment. > Ultimately Shylock is allowed to depart with half his goods for his lifetime, and the other half kept in trust on condition that he becomes a Christian and bequeaths his possessions to Lorenzo and Jessica. > Bassanio offers to reward the young lawyer. > Portia asks for his ring, when Bassanio first denies, but after Antonio’s requests, gives it to Gratiano so that he can deliver it to Portia. “The acceptance of this Tudor universe is no proof of profound political speculation on Shakespeare’s part. He took what was going in the way of ideas and, as was his wont, gave to it the perfect shaping that came naturally to that Hand of Glory. He saw history as a dramatist, in terms of people and character- rightly since that was his profession- and not as an analyst of social forces, or as a student of economic and political motive. He drew on the chronicles of Hall and Holinshed for English history and on North Plutarch for his classical plays.” – Ivor Brown: Conception of History. It is quite sure that he never intended the play to be a tragedy. Interpreted in the light of modern humanistic tendencies Shylock’s character comes to have something tragic in it, but even this is not so marked. The whole play is romantic in its essence. Whatever we may say in favour of Shylock, he is doubtlessly a misfit in the world he lives in. therefore it can be said in conclusion that though Shylock does arouse pity for him, the play was never meant to be a tragedy. The Italian atmosphere makes the play more romantic. We see in the distance the gondola which is bearing Jessica away with her lover. Italy- the land of beauty and romance, the mistress of so many poets, the country of enchantment- such is the background of this play. What could be more romantic than an Italian background? According to Stopford A. Brooke there is something romantic also in Antonio’s lavish friendship, ready to sacrifice not only wealth by life for the sake of Bassanio. This friendship between a grave man , bordering on old age, and a young, gay affectionate wild fells , capable of better things and nice in honour-this friendship, says Brooke; is instinct with the spirit of romance. SCENE AT A GLANCE IN ACT 4 SCENE 2: Portia and Nerissa are in a street of Venice on their way to Shylock’s house where they are to get the deed signed from Shylock. > Gratiano overtakes them and gives Bassanio’s ring to Portia. He also agrees to show Nerissa of Shylock’s house. > Nerissa tells Portia that she too will try to get her own ring from Gratiano. Portia takes great delight in playing the double ring joke on their husbands. We find ample proof of Portia’s brilliant intellect at least on two occasions in the play. We notice her psychological insight into human character, particularly when she expresses her opinion about some of her suitors, and is particularly witty and ironical. She says about Neapolitan Prince, -Ay that’s a colt indeed, for he doth nothing but talks of his horse; and he makes it a great appropriation to his own good part that he can shoe show himself- Like the Prodigal Son’s father, Antonio has shown the loving and forgiving generousity of his nature, but he remains a mysterious character. Early in the scene he tells Gratiano that he thinks of the world as -A stage where every man must play apart, And mine a sad one- (Oxford- Shakespeare)
It is his changing relationship with Bassanio that causes his melancholy. Some Elizabethans thought- as the Greeks and Romans did- that friendship between two men was a more spiritual bond, and should be more highly esteemed, than the love between a man and a woman. Knowing that Bassanio is interested in a lady (lines 119-21, Act I, Scene 1), Antonio may be secretly grieving for the inevitable end to a friendship. (Oxford- Shakespeare) Certainly the usurer is necessary to the world of The Merchant of Venice. Shylock’s wealth is evidence of his professional success, which could only come from satisfying a social need. Shylock first appears as the cautious businessman, thinking carefully before he invests his three thousand ducats in Bassanio’s enterprise. His reaction to the polite invitation to dinner is unexpected in its venom, which increases as he tells the audience of his hatred for Antonio. Religious differences seem to be less important than professional jealousy. BASSANIO, a younger man, who has already spent all his own money and now hopes to restore his fortunes by marrying an heiress. He needs to borrow money so that he can appear rich when he courts Portia, and it is for his sake that Antonio enters into the bond with Shylock. Bassanio is made to show good judgement when he makes his choice of the leaden casket and so wins Portia for his wife. (Oxford Edition: Shakespeare)
Most worthy gentleman, I and my friend Have by your wisdom been this day acquitted Of grievous penalties; in lieu whereof, Three thousand ducats, due unto the Jew, We freely cope your courteous pains withal.
When Shylock next appears in Act 3, Scene 1 the passion is subdued into an intense and malevolent bitterness; yet the jesting of the two Christians is cruel. The loss of a daughter is a real cause for sorrow, and Shylock earns some pity, from the audience, when he tells Solanio and Salerio that ‘my daughter is my flesh my blood.’ It is with very mixed feelings, then, that we are led up to powerful speech in which Shylock catalogues the abuses he has had to suffer from Christians in general, and from Antonio in particular. There is only one reason that he can see for this treatment: ‘I am a Jew’. It is easy to respond to the rhetorical questions. Shylock appeals to our common humanity. To give a negative answer to his questions would deny not his humanity, but our own. The speech, however, continues: “and if you wrong us, shall we not revenge? If we are like you in the rest, we will resemble you in that…The villainy you teach me I will execute, and it shall go hard but I will better the instruction.” GRATIANO, a young man with a reputation for wild behavior. He accompanies Bassanio to Belmont, and wins the love of Portia’s lady-in-waiting, Nerissa. (Oxford Edition: Shakespeare)
A second Daniel, a Daniel, Jew! Now, infidel, I have you on the hip.
PORTIA Why doth the Jew pause? take thy forfeiture.
To some extent Shylock justifies his hostility when he describes how he has been treated by Antonio-insulted, spat upon, and kicked out of the way like ‘a stranger cur’. Because of this, we sympathize with him. When the scene ends, we are left with two conflicting opinions of Shylock and his ‘merry sport’. Are we to share Antonio’s surprise, ‘And say there is much kindness in the Jew’? Or is Bassanio right to be suspicious of ‘fair terms and a villain’s mind’? The scene with Antonio and Bassanio shows Shylock in his professional, public, life. Next, we hear what he is like at home. His comic servant, Launcelot Gobbo, exaggerates with a characteristic misuse of the English language, when he says that ‘the Jew is the very devil incarnation.’ But of, this opinion is echoed by Shylock’s daughter, Jessica, when she sighs ‘Our house is hell’. Jessica is asham’d to be [her] father’s child’, although she knows that it is a ‘heinous sin’ for a daughter to have such feelings. We can understand Jessica’s misery when her father gives instructions about locking up his house whist he is away. Jessica is forbidden even to look out of the window to watch the masquers going to Bassanio’s feast. Shylock is a kill -joy -and he has also killed his daughter’s natural affection for him. William Shakespeare was writing during the period of reign of Queen Elizabeth in British throne (1558-1603) which is usually termed as the Elizabethan age or the Elizabethan Era, though it is often used to refer to the late 16th century and early 17th century. The age is often termed as “Renaissance”-meaning “rebirth” or ‘reawakening”; though Renaissance happened all over Europe in the 14th century and 15th century. In case of England, the term Renaissance applies to the 16th century when England witnessed a socio-cultural upheaval and a change that affected the lives of all. This period witnessed a rapid growth in English Commerce, naval power and nationalist feeling, along with it being the greatest age of English literature, especially plays and poems. The prominent writers of the age are William Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, Christopher Marlowe, Sir Philip Sidney, Edmund Spenser, Francis Bacon, Walter Raleigh and others. SCENE AT A GLANCE IN ACT 5, SCENE 1; Lorenzo and Jessica talk lovingly, when a messenger tells them that Portia is about to arrive. > After the arrival of Portia and Nerissa, Bassanio and Gratiano, along with Antonio appear. > Nerissa begins a quarrel with Gratiano about the ring she has gifted. Soon Bassanio is also accused of the same by Portia. Quarrel ensues, where Bassanio accepts his mistake and Antonio pleads that he is ready to be surely for Bassanio’s future faithfulness. > Eventually, Portia and Nerissa reveal the truth about their activities in Venice. The three pairs of lovers are at last together. >Portia gives a letter to Antonio which states that his ships have return safe. Nerissa gives the signed deed of Shylock to Lorenzo and Jessica who are also happy that their financial luck has favoured them. > As it is about to be morning, Portia invites everyone within the house. Common humanity ignores all limitations of colour, race or creed; and this is strongly asserted in the first part of Shylock’s speech. But of, the assertions of these last lines show that the individual- Shylock- is determined to ignore the limits of humanity. He will ‘better the instruction’, and prove himself to be not the equal of the Christians in inflicting suffering on others, but their superior. During the trial, Shylock loses the audience’s sympathy, by his words and by the action of sharpening the knife on the sole of his shoe, which Gratiano observes in line 123. Neither insults nor pleading spoil the enjoyment of his triumph, and when sentence is given against Antonio, he repeats the words of the bond with a lingering relish. The events that follow do nothing to moderate the presentation of Shylock in the terms used by the Duke when he warns Antonio, before the trial begins, that his adversary is “an inhuman wretch Uncapable of pity, void and empty From any dram of mercy.” “SHYLOCK IS ONE OF SHAKESPEARE’S MOST INTERESTING CREATIONS, EVEN FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF LANGUAGE”. Shylock demanded a strict observance of the law, and in poetic justice, is precisely this that defeats him. Gratiano exults over his downfall, but the other characters in the court speak no unnecessary words and show no satisfaction until Shylock has left the court. Even then, conversation is formal, occupied only with thanks and payment. It does not obliterate the memory of Shylock’s parting words. Recent English productions of The Merchant of Venice have emphasized the suffering human being, but I do not think that this is what Shakespeare intended (Oxford Edition).
Shylock is more complex than any of the other characters in the play: we can think of him as a ‘real’ person, whose words and deeds are motivated by thoughts and feelings that we can discover from the play, and that we can understand when we have discovered them. We cannot think of Bassanio, for instance in this way. Yet in admiring Shakespeare’s achievement in the creation of Shylock, we must beware of danger. Often, when we know a person well, and understand why he acts as he does, we become sympathetic to him; in The Merchant of Venice we are further encouraged to sympathize with Shylock also by the fact that other leading characters, such as Bassanio do not compel our sympathies. Sympathy can give rise to affection, and affection often tempts us to withhold moral judgement, or at least be gentle in our censure. Shylock’s conduct merits condemnation. We can only refrain from condemning it because we know that he has suffered for being a Jew; and this, surely, is another form of prejudice?
GRATIANO Beg that thou mayst have leave to hang thyself: And yet, thy wealth being forfeit to the state, Thou hast not left the value of a cord; Therefore thou must be hang'd at the state's charge.
Then again, the news of the loss of Antonio’s ships in the sea is being conveyed slowly by either Lorenzo or Jessica whom some messenger comes to meet at Belmont. We notice how in the eighth scene of the second Act the news of Antonio’s loss is discussed by Solanio and Salarino, who again in the first scene of the third Act continue to discuss further and thus help the audience to remain in touch with the news. Of course, it is only at the end of the Caskets Story that we come to know of the disaster of Antonio from his letter to Bassanio. We have been told throughout the play that Shylock is extremely avaricious, and that is why, it appears rather most improbable and strange when we find Shylock refusing of ten times the amount of the original loan in the open court and insisting on the penalty of the bond, namely, a pound of flesh from Antonio’s breast. This strangeness of Shylock’s attitude towards money is made possible by the Lorenzo- Jessica story because it is Jessica’s elopement with a Christian that intensifies his revengeful spirit against Antonio, who is also a Christian, otherwise he would have surely accepted the offer of such a big amount made by Bassanio on behalf of Antonio. The revengeful spirit of Shylock is further aggravated by the fact that Jessica not only elopes with a Christian but also robs her father of all his gold and jewels with the help of a Christian, Lorenzo. JESSICA, Shylock’s daughter; she disguises herself as a boy in order to run away from her father’s house, where she is unhappy. She is in love with the Christian Lorenzo. (Oxford Edition: Shakespeare)
In such a night Medea gather'd the enchanted herbs That did renew old AEson.
The Merchant of Venice ends in mirth and laughter. Everything is brought to a happy close. Everyone except Shylock gets his or her heart’s desire. In the moonlit night at Belmont the three pairs of lovers at last come together. Antonio has reached the happy news that his argosies have arrived in port. There is no hint of sadness in the end- all is joy, and this joy is marred by nothing. Nothing could be more happy than the end of The Merchant of Venice. A snarl of frustrated wrath can deliver this line: ‘ I pray you give me leave to go from hence: I am not well’ ; or else it can be spoken with the anguish of a man who has lost everything – his daughter, his wealth, his religious freedom, and the engagement ring given to him by his wife. So the play has generally been classified as a romantic comedy which means a play containing a number of romantic elements and a number of comic elements, skillfully and artistically mixed together. However almost every romantic comedy by Shakespeare has a number of serious elements too, and some of these serious elements come very close to becoming tragic. The play contains a number of romantic and comic elements but it also contains a number of serious elements, some of them verging on tragedy. In the opinion of some scholars the element of seriousness in this play is so prominent that it seems to acquire a tragic quality. It is the character of Shylock that gives the play a colour of tragedy, Shylock has lost all that he cherished in life; he has lost his wealth, his religion, his revenge. He is broken like a reed. The lonely Jew totters home, but the world does not care. In the very next Act- the final one- poetry steels gently into our hearts in the moon-shine at Belmont. Lovers meet happily. In the fairly atmosphere of Belmont we forget, not only Shylock, but the outside everyday world of bitter realities also. The fifth act of the play was written expressly to remove the suspicion that the play was intended as a Tragedy. Even if the play did not have the happy ending of Act V the play would have been a romantic comedy because the trial itself ends happily for the hero, Antonio, and for all the hero’s friends. If the trial ends unhappily for Shylock it does not make the play tragic because Shylock is a villain who deserves punishment. Of course Shylock does become a pathetic figure at this point because his punishment is too severe, we see him as a remarkable figure. He has fire and power to move us, energy radiates from him. He engrosses our attention by his quick and vigorous utterance and by the intensity he displays in his speeches. As he protests against the treatment meted out to him, or champions the course of his race, he appeals to our deepest and most lasting emotions. When he insists on having his right of having Antonio’s flesh he has a force which excites our admiration in spite of his moral depravity and wickedness. And as he is at last beaten at his own game and completely crushed we begin to feel for him. But of, it seems the dramatist is very anxious to leave no impression if the play being a tragedy. This would have been the impression if the play had ended with Act IV. But for, it does not. So the impression is different. The play is nothing but a tragedy, and if Shylock is something of a tragic character it is mainly because we have come to look upon him in that light. So the play is quite carefully balanced by the purest comedy and the dramatist is careful to leave us in no doubt of his intention by providing us with an end which ignores Shylock altogether, and makes us forget him in the happiness of the lovers. SHYLOCK Shall I not have barely my principal? PORTIA Thou shalt have nothing but the forfeiture, To be so taken at thy peril, Jew.
There is a plenty of comedy in this play too. Launcelot Gobbo is a clown or a jester who was introduced by Shakespeare only to produce laughter. Launcelot’s fooling of his own father is comic too, though it is something crude and farcical. He is capable of making a good joke also as for instance, when he says that the making of Christians, or the conversion of the Jews to Christianity, would raise the price of hogs in Venice. But of, it is the sense of humour and the wit of Portia and of Gratiano which import to the play a truly comic quality. Portia’s wit is first brought to our notice through her comments on her suitors. SHYLOCK Why, then the devil give him good of it! I'll stay no longer question.
The casket story is essentially romantic. Portia is a romantic lady despite her intellectuality; and Bassanio is a romantic hero despite the fact that in the beginning he strikes us as a fortune hunter. Bassanio’s success in choosing the right casket over whelms Portia with joy; and Portia’s beauty enthralls Bassanio. The Lorenzo-Jessica love affair is highly romantic despite the distress experienced by Shylock when he finds that his daughter has run away with a Christian, and also taken away a lot of his money and jewels. The romantic appeal of the play is enhanced by the moonlight scene at Belmont between Lorenzo and Jessica with its references to the famous mythology love stories. In this play there is a combination of the serious and the gay elements. In the classical plays of antiquity comedy and tragedy were sharply distinguished and kept entirely separate from each other. No comic play contained tragic elements and vice versa. But of, in Romantic drama of Shakespeare comedy and tragedy sometimes jostle each other. The terrible hatred of Shylock the sense of an impending disaster in the life of Antonio and Shylock’s overwhelming ruin are tragic elements which are mingled with such comic elements as the wit of Gratiano and Portia, the humour of Launcelot and the story of the rings. This mingling of the comic and tragic note gives to the play a romantic character. A pair of lovers are always to romantic subject, because wooing is the most exciting of men’s emotional experiences. Youth in love is the most alluring theme for romantic comedy. The Merchant of Venice is romantic, therefore, by virtue of the freshness and frankness of its two love stories of Portia and Bassanio, of Lorenzo and Jessica. The first love story has its romantic elements in the bold adventure of Bassanio who goes to Belmont to win a wife and in the passionate love that exists between the two. SHYLOCK Why, so: and I know not what's spent in the search: why, thou loss upon loss! the thief gone with so much, and so much to find the thief; and no satisfaction, no revenge: nor no in luck stirring but what lights on my shoulders; no sighs but of my breathing; no tears but of my shedding.
The other love, between Jessica and Lorenzo is still more romantic because of a greater element of adventure and because of the hazard that it involves. A Christian is in love with a Jewess and since the Jew would never agree to such a match, the lovers elope. A masque is arranged: Jessica slips out of her house in the guise of a boy; the masked procession is led by torches. This is all romance. But of, the most romantic feature in this love-story is the wonderful, moonlight scene between Jessica and Lorenzo in the beginning of Act V. Few passages in Shakespeare have more of the “far-off magic of poetry” than this conversation between the lovers. Their love is “decked out with imagination and thoughts.” This “moonlight serenade of music” with its rich allusion to Greek Mythology is indeed, a delight. She says about her English suitors that he is oddly suited; and in this context she further says that he must have his doublet in Italy, his round hose in France, his bonnet in Germany and his behavior everywhere. A plenty of mirth and laughter has been produced by the comedy of rings and the playwright ends his play with mirth and laughter. Though ended happily the play cannot be called a romantic comedy. “Shakespearean romantic comedy is fundamentally different from classical comedy. It is an unlimited venture for happiness and an imprinly imaginative undertaking of human welfare. It’s heroes heroines are ‘Voyagers’ in pursuit of a happiness, not yet attained- a ‘Brave New World’, wherein man’s life may be fuller his sensations more exquisite, and his joys more wide-spread more lasting, and so more humane. The central theme of Shakespeare’s romantic comedy rotates a round love- an immorally inspiring love. To quote Beatrice Webb-“ The Merchant of Venice, certainly, contains elements of romance; the elopement of Jessica, the melancholy sweet love between these two young lovers and love-lit just meeting of Bassanio and Portia- all these are the most sparkling elements of a romantic comedy. But we should also note that love is not the central theme of the plot; the play a grim fight between two antagonistic religious orthodoxies. “ BASSANIO Dear sir, of force I must attempt you further: Take some remembrance of us, as a tribute, Not as a fee: grant me two things, I pray you, Not to deny me, and to pardon me.
One thing is very striking about Jessica that when we know that Jessica is the daughter of such miserly, orthodox, communal minded, malicious and cruel person as Shylock, how could she be so sweet, loving, romantic, liberal, poetic in spirit? We know also in what kind of narrow, foul and filthy atmosphere Jessica has been brought up, and yet how can she be so beautiful, cheerful, gay, so fond of beauty and music, so good and gentle. Of course such anomalies occur in nature sometimes. For example, lovely flowers blossoms out of cow-dung, sweet vegetable out up from the night soil, and many saints are also born of most wicked parents. Jessica, the daughter of the Jew Shylock, falls in love with a Christian young man by the name of Lorenzo who is one of Antonio’s and Bassanio’s friends. Shylock knows nothing about her love-affairs because Jessica has been keeping it a close secret. She knows that her father hates the Christians fiercely and that he would never tolerate the idea of her being in love with a Christian young man. At the same time, she feels a dislike for her father for various reasons. Enter Musicians Come, ho! and wake Diana with a hymn! With sweetest touches pierce your mistress' ear, And draw her home with music. Jessica is most unlike her father, Shylock. Jessica is impulsive, reckless, unfilial, treacherous and even cruel. Of course every young woman when confined within the four walls of her house, and when she is not allowed to have any communication with the outer world, and when particularly she has no mother, no sister, no brother and none except a poor old father, who is hatred by everybody in the world for many of his evil qualities is bound to go mad, not to speak of being impulsive or reckless like Jessica. But then, when we consider the father’s condition for how lonely Shylock is without his wife or without any of his children except Jessica, we feel that it is most cruel on the part of his daughter to steal away from home without his knowledge and permission. Being a Jewish girl, Jessica must be a paragon of beauty; otherwise a Christian like Lorenzo would not have fallen in love with her and eloped with her. Lorenzo remarks: “She is wise, if I can judge of her. And fair she is, if hat mine eyes be true, And true she is, as she hath, proved.”- reveal her personal charm and sweetness of soul. Even Portia who is far above Jessica in rank and culture, is enamoured of her; otherwise she could not have entrusted the care of her house in her hands during her absence from Belmont. PORTIA, the most important character in the play. She is an heiress, and is in love with Bassanio; but her father has devised a test with three caskets, and Portia must marry the man who chooses the right casket. Portia is intelligent as well as beautiful; dressed as a lawyer she goes to Venice and saves Antonio from being killed by Shylock. Her home is Belmont, and the peace and harmony here contrast with the tense business world of Venice. (Oxford Edition: Shakespeare)
He is well paid that is well satisfied; And I, delivering you, am satisfied And therein do account myself well paid: My mind was never yet more mercenary. I pray you, know me when we meet again: I wish you well, and so I take my leave.
Shylock is a suspicious kind of man who is also very puritanical, therefore imposes all kinds of restrictions on his daughter. Besides, he has never given any sign of any deep love or affection for her. Finding no other way opened to her Jessica forms a plot to elope from home in order to marry Lorenzo. She disguises herself as a boy on the night when a marked procession of the Christians is to pass through the street in which Shylock’s house is situated. She informs Lorenzo by a letter sent to him through Launcelot Gobbo, that she would be slipping out of her father’s house in order to join him in the marked procession. Everything goes well; and slipping out of the house she joins Lorenzo though at this time she is feeling ashamed of her boy’s disguise. Before coming out of the house, she throws a couple of bags full of money and precious stones. The two lovers soon afterwards leave Venice in a gondola, and later go to Belmont to join Bassanio and Gratiano who are already there. At Belmont they are entrusted by Portia with the charge of her house and property because she herself is going away on a secret mission of her own in Nerissa’s company. Towards the end of the play there is a beautiful moonlight scene in which Jessica and Lorenzo speak to each other about some of the famous love-stories of ancient mythology, connecting those stories with the beautiful moonlight night and with their own love- affair. GRATIANO Fair sir, you are well o'erta'en My Lord Bassanio upon more advice Hath sent you here this ring, and doth entreat Your company at dinner.
“I am really been impressed to the thoughts of portraying such magnificent characters in a most recriminated and magnanimous distinct ways. – My vision referred accord to the original text.’’ (Rituparna Ray Chaudhuri.)
“Although generally considered a comedy, it has an underlying plot of considerable moral dimension. The Merchant of Venice is one of Shakespeare’s most accessible plays. The three main characters, Antonio the prosperous merchant, Shylock the reviled usurer and the heiress Portia are portrayed in ways so untypical to Elizabethan norms that the play has impressed the modern reader with its extraordinary relevance. Nothing is more difficult than to pin a dramatist down to definite opinions and a definite point of view. Belmont is not heaven, because there is much talk of marrying and giving in marriage, and withal a roguish touch of Boccaccio now and again. Rather it is Elysium, a Renaissance Elysium, a garden full of music under the soft Italian night, with a Gracious and stately mansion in the background.” – Dr. S. Sen. (except a -few setting within the-quote.) The Lorenzo- Jessica story has a great dramatic importance in the play. In the first place, Jessica brings into bold relief Shylock’s miserliness, his suspicious nature, his unfatherly attitude towards his own daughter, his mean stinginess, and his unusual greed for money. Lorenzo on the other hand, brings out Shylock’s bitter feelings against the Christian community. It is because of the elopement of a Jewish girl with a Christian and then, it is because of the robbery of all the jewel. Of Shylock by the girl and her lover that make Shylock furious against Antonio in particular and against the whole Christian community in general. Shylock’s revenge against Antonio is intensified by the behaviour of Jessica and Lorenzo, which indirectly further intensifies the tragic tension created by the bond in the trial scene. LAUNCELOT ' Well, my conscience, hanging about the neck of my heart, says very wisely to me 'My honest friend Launcelot, being an honest man's son,' or rather an honest woman's son; for, indeed, my father did something smack, something grow to, he had a kind of taste; well, my conscience says 'Launcelot, budge not. The Lorenzo-Jessica story is closely connected with the Bond Story and the Caskets Story. As already pointed out, Lorenzo is a friend of Bassanio, Gratiano and Antonio while Jessica is the daughter of the Jew, Shylock. Antonio is the hero of the Bond Story. Bassanio is the hero of the Caskets Story; and Shylock is the villain of the Bond Story. Besides, Portia becomes quite fond of these lovers, and entrusts them with the charge of her property during her absence from Belmont. The inter-linking of the three strands is therefore obvious. Last of all, both Lorenzo and Jessica serve as a foil to Bassanio and Portia. Had there been no Lorenzo- Jessica story, much of the romance in the play would have been lost, although the Casket-Story is a purely Romantic Story, and it should be considered as sufficient for the purpose of contributing the element of romance to the play. But then, is not the elopement more romantic than the choice of marriage by the caskets? Is not the escape of Jessica from her father’s house and even the robbery of the jewels a much more thrilling adventure of romance than the choice of the caskets by the various suitors of Portia? Then again, could such a beautiful scene of music and love be possible at the end of the play without Lorenzo and Jessica? As a matter of fact, the caskets story in spite of its music and other elements of romance could not sufficiently counter balance the tragic atmosphere of the play, particularly at the Trial- Scene. Bankruptcy by itself does not go against a man and is no sign of any basic defect in his character. Because many millionaires have been known to have become bankrupts as a consequence of unexpected turns in fortune or unexpected losses. We cannot believe that a merchant of outstanding reputation and prestige could not have raised an amount of three-thousand ducats to repay the Jew after he has become a bankrupt. He can foresee the expiry of the period of the bond but he makes no effort to obtain from any source the money to repay the loan which he had taken from the Jew. Antonio never takes any initiative in saving himself from the Jew’s clutches. Thus when we find that Shylock complains bitterly about the degrading treatment to which he is consistently subjected by Antonio, we can scarcely believe our ears, and it is only when Antonio, comes on the scene again and personally confirms all that Shylock has said, that we realize that there is another side also of Antonio’s character. There was a specific reason for Antonio to subject the Jews to a cruel species of mental persecution, but he seems to enjoy a sinister pre-eminence among the Christians of Venice in the pastime of Jew baiting. Antonio’s conduct on his part would be absolutely inexplicable if we did not soon discover that his feeling did not run high against the Jews in general so much as against Shylock personally. His hatred of Jew is not merely a matter of racial and religious prejudice. It proceeds from a constitutional inability to tolerate the moral self-sufficiency of a man who under cover of religious sanction, oppresses the poor. Thus Antonio’s persecution of the Jew may be paradoxically regarded as an inverse expression of his noble generousity of temperament. NERISSA The ancient saying is no heresy, Hanging and wiving goes by destiny. PORTIA Come, draw the curtain, Nerissa.
With all his fine qualities Antonio is a man who wins our respect and admiration. But of, according to some critics there are some- deficiency in his character. His religious or racial intolerance somewhat lowers him in our estimation. In fact Antonio goes beyond the limits when he insults and degrades Shylock. He tells Shylock that he wants a loan from him not as friend but as an enemy. There was certainly a general prejudice against the Jews in those days but it cannot be expected or admitted that a nice person like Antonio even is not free from this type of prejudice. Moreover, we find Antonio a melancholy man, he is unable to laugh and is certainly incapable of cutting a joke. Being a serious-minded man he is also unable to enjoy such merry making as torch-light, masked processions in which Lorenzo and others take great pleasures. It also seems that he is indifferent of falling in love. When at the outset it is suggested that he may be feeling melancholy because he is in love, he promptly rejects thus the suggestion saying ,’Fie, fie!” melancholy is natural handicap, this cannot really be called a fault. His real fault is his religious fanaticism. At the end of the Trial Scene he demands that Shylock should become a Christian. Antonio, the protagonist of Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Venice is a man of almost unlimited kindness and generousity. In spite of his being cast down by an overpowering melancholy, he patiently endures all the merely inquisitive cross- questioning of people of the type of Salerio and Solanio and their ill-timed jesting at his expense. From the beginning to the end of the play, we find Antonio asserting his personality nowhere except while seeking a loan for his friend Bassanio. In the beginning of the play Antonio talks of his sadness in such a manner that one feels that he is constitutionally weak or diseased and possesses no personality, no back-bone, no independence of any kind in thought, feeling or action. Thus he creates an unfavourable impression from the very beginning. Gold: Who chooseth me shall gain what many men desire. Silver: who chooseth me shall get as much as he deserves. Lead: who chooseth me must give and hazard all he hath. This attitude on character like Antonio who has been portrayed by Shakespeare an ideal in all respects, constitutes a serious flaw in his character. Besides, he is too stoical and lacks the will to fight for his survival. This is another flaw in his character. Moreover he is too passive to take any active part. He hardly does anything except signing a bond which almost proves fatal to him. The dynamic character which is expected from the hero of a play is totally absent in his character. Antonio has some tendency or attitude to be indifferent even in the moments of crisis. This is due to undue self-confidence which is not strength but weakness in man. When Bassanio repeatedly warns Antonio not to execute the bond of Shylock with a pound of flesh from his breast as the forfeiture, Antonio not only signs the bond but also assures Bassanio. On another occasions previous to the discussion when, Salarino says Antonio is sad because he has sent out to sea all his merchant ships, Antonio was quite boastful in his reply. PORTIA Away, then! I am lock'd in one of them: If you do love me, you will find me out. Nerissa and the rest, stand all aloof. Let music sound while he doth make his choice; Then, if he lose, he makes a swan-like end, Fading in music: that the comparison May stand more proper, my eye shall be the stream And watery death-bed for him. Prejudice is the subject of the short episode in Belmont, where we see Portia’s reception of the Prince of Morocco. The prince’s appearance shows that he is an exotic figure: a note, probably written by Shakespeare himself, describes him as –a tawny [brown] Moor, all in white- His first speech reinforces our sense that he is excitingly different from the Europeans that we have seen so far, but it does not change Portia’s mind. She is polite, but we understand, better than Morocco can, what she means when she tells him that, in her eyes, he is -as fair As any comer I have looke’d on yet- We have heard what Portia thought of her other suitors. The Prince’s reply to this ambiguous remark does not encourage our good opinion of him. He boasts of his own valour and achievements in very exaggerated language, and so loses some of our sympathy. Again his capacity to hate is evident in the manner in which he has been treating Shylock. He has been hating Shylock because Shylock is a Jew but even more Shylock is a usurer. He has been calling Shylock a cut-throat dog, and defaming him and spitting on his Gaberdine. At the very moment that he is seeking a loan from the Jew, he says that he would treat the Jew in the same manner in the future in which he has been treating him in the past. Thus Antonio not only hates Shylock but hates him fiercely. It is then clear that Antonio does not have the strength or energy to do anything to save himself from the clutches of Jew Shylock when he finds himself in the Jew’s grip. Antonio in the course of the play, certainly becomes bankrupt. He proves himself to be a true friend of Bassanio. He is ready to lend money to Bassanio without the least hesitation and having no cash in hand, he authorizes Bassanio to take a loan from somebody else in his name. While bidding farewell to Bassanio when the latter is leaving for Belmont, Antonio is moved almost to tears. As a result when he has become a bankrupt, he sends the message to Bassanio not to cut short his say at Belmont for his sake. He says in the Trial scene to Bassanio “Grieve not that I am fallen to this for you.” From the very beginning of the play we find Antonio as a true friend to Bassanio and ready to sacrifice his all for his welfare. He is equally tolerant of Gratiano’s rather futile attempt at rousing his spirits by indulging in a humerously satirical description of people who maintain an enforced silence in order thereby to purchase for themselves the high opinion of the world. But of, it is when he left alone with Bassanio that we realize the extent of human love and devotion of which he is capable. His pursue, his person, and his extremest means are unreservedly placed at Bassanio’s disposal in order that Bassanio might make his speculative love-pilgrimage to Belmont. He gives no thought whatsoever to the money that Bassanio already owe him. He feels impelled to watch Bassanio’s second undertaking more carefully, not that he will be in a position either to return all that he owes or at least repay the second loan; these are absolutely beside the point. It is his view that Bassanio must be supplied the amount of money that he needs and it is quite irrelevant to him whether he gets the money back or not. Antonio wins our respect and admiration because of his fine qualities, yet he also suffers from a serious defect. As a Christian he shows intolerance towards the Jews. He hates Shylock because Shylock is a usurer and even more because Shylock is a Jew. This religious or racial intolerance on his part somewhat lowers him in our estimation. In fact, Antonio goes out of his way to insult and degrade Shylock. On many occasions he has abused Shylock and even spit on his clothes. His reason for thus treating Shylock is that Shylock is a usurer and a Jew. And even when he is asking Shylock for a loan, he says that in future also he would abuse him and spit on him.
“When the tide turns, it is a long time before anything like seriousness builds on these earlier preparations. Just as the matters of happy omen followed each other as in some conspiracy with fortune, the reverses come in unhindered succession, ill fortune following ill fortune until nothing is left. Here as before the fantastic improbabilities determine the nature of our involvement in the action. Now as always almost nothing depends on the springs of character, but it all happens according to conventions of the folk-variety. “– John Athos: The Turning of the Tide.
Thus his strong capacity to love and hate is revealed through his character. His capacity of love becomes clear to us when he gets ready to lend money to Bassanio for the second time and is prepared even to borrow money from a professional money lender in order to meet the financial needs of his friend. Salerio and Solanio bear witness to Antonio’s deep friendship for Bassanio when they say that he loves the world only for Bassanio’s sake.
PORTIA In terms of choice I am not solely led By nice direction of a maiden's eyes; Besides, the lottery of my destiny Bars me the right of voluntary choosing: He doesnot have the heart of a worm. He has the heart of a decent human being. The faults and the flaws of Antonio’s character are evident to us even on a superficial view. He is by nature a sad man. Although his melancholy here seems to have been of a recent origin, yet subsequently we find that it is a permanent trait of his character. In the Trial Scene we find that it is deeply embedded in his nature. In this scene he specifically says to Bassanio that he is a trained sheep of the flock, “meetest for death”. Through an unfortunate concentration of circumstances the signing of the bond, the elopement of Jessica, and the reported loss of his ships- Antonio is like a sheep ready for slaughter and ready to be sacrificed to appease the wrath and to restore the outraged dignity of the Jew.
“The Second Act begins with most stilted of Portia’s suitors undertaking what turns out to be a fatal choice. He is stiff and formalized as the most pageant-like story could desire. We are still in the midst of the contrived and the artificial, and now also there is the openly grotesque-in the casket he chooses a skull that stares at him. And now the other suitors follow in procession until finally there is the right and happy choice.” – John Arthos, The Lottery.
It is precisely on this account that we cannot with-hold our sympathies from Antonio and that, in the Trial Scene, we follow his fortunes with much more concern than we do those of Shylock. We know that it cannot be merely because of the abuse he had at one time heaped on the Jew’s head that Shylock is now immovable in his demand for the pound of flesh., and we feel therefore, that Antonio is being called upon to pay for somebody else’s sins. There, is however, an important circumstance which we must take into account and which, when duly considered, will enable us to realize that the sympathy which is drawn to Antonio, when the Jew persists in his demand for the pound of flesh, is not misplaced. Once the Jew consents to lend the money that Bassanio requires, Antonio’s attitude towards him undergoes a change. He speaks appreciatively of Shylock’s kindness and refuses to see that there is any sinister intention in Shylock’s proposing in a merry sport the inclusion in the bond of the terms pertaining to the pound of flesh. When, therefore, Jessica elopes with a Christian and thereby inflames the Jew’s worst passions, we must regard the circumstance as a most unfortunate one for Antonio especially, as he had no act or part in it, that Shylock’s vengeance falls on his devoted head is due very; largely to the fact that it is he and he alone among the Christian friends of Lorenzo whom the Jew has it in his power to injure at the time. MOROCCO Even for that I thank you: Therefore, I pray you, lead me to the caskets To try my fortune. Launcelot Gobbo amuses us considerably by describing the conflict in his mind between his desire to quit Shylock’s service and his sense of duty which requires him to continue serving Shylock. This conflict according to him is one which takes place between his conscience and the fiend. His befooling of his aged, blind father is an example of farcical humour. But of, Launcelot is capable also of making witty remarks. For instance, he says that if all the Jews turn Christians, the price of hogs would rise greatly and it would become difficult to get a slice of bacon at any price in Venice. Launcelot sometimes plays on words to make jokes, and it is for this that Lorenzo calls him a “wit snapper”. The whole scene of Launcelot Gobbo and his father produces in the audience reeling laughter. But of, Gratiano is perfectly decent in his witty remarks at the court scene although some of his words are ironical; and sarcastic and cannot be strictly called humours. Because of the warnings of Bassanio before going to Belmont, Gratiano probably puts sufficient reins to his tongue, otherwise probably he would have also descended to the same level of vulgarity in his jokes as Launcelot descends throughout the play. ANTONIO Mark you this, Bassanio, The devil can cite Scripture for his purpose. An evil soul producing holy witness Is like a villain with a smiling cheek, A goodly apple rotten at the heart: O, what a goodly outside falsehood hath!
The term “humour” is a wider one in its scope than the word “wit”. Wit involves the use of words, and it has an intellectual quality. Humours may be found not only in words and remarks but also in situations and therefore not to be intellectual. The term humour includes wit, though wit is a specialized form of humour. Wit is sometimes expressed in the form of satire and ridicule. Then there is irony which may be used for comic purposes. Comic irony may be found in words and remarks and also in situations. Farce is an extravagant, exaggerated, and even crude form of humour. All these kinds of humour and wit are to be found in The Merchant of Venice in a considerable measure. The comic elements in The Merchant of Venice include the humour provided by Launcelot Gobbo and the witty remarks made by Portia and Gratiano. This sense of security makes him totally unguarded. But of, his parting words to Bassanio bring out the warmest heart of Antonio for Bassanio. Just before he bids Bassanio farewell he speaks a few words which also bring out his sincerest love for Bassanio. It is remarkable when Antonio says to Bassanio, ‘you cannot better be employed, Bassanio , than to live still, and write mine epitaph.’ How many people in this world can utter such words as Antonio speaks just at the moment when he is leaving the world! Is it not sufficient proof of Antonio’s ideal love and friendship for Bassanio that surpasses all the deficiency in his character? SHYLOCK Three thousand ducats; 'tis a good round sum. Three months from twelve; then, let me see; the rate—
As a matter of fact except the Trial-Scene every other scene contributes to the comedy of the whole story. But for, some critics have pointed out that even the caskets story verges on a tragedy because of the great suspense and anxiety to which everyone of the suitors is subjected while making the selection of the caskets. It is the Ring-Episode alone that can be considered as contributing the real comic element to the play because it helps to reduce the traffic gloom and sadness generated in the Court- Scene by the bond. Had there been no ring episode, we are sure that nothing could have saved the play from being a tragedy. Even the Lorenzo-Jessica Story adds to the gloom of the Bond-Story.
PORTIA
You must take your chance,
And either not attempt to choose at all
Or swear before you choose, if you choose wrong
Never to speak to lady afterward
In way of marriage: therefore be advised.
Launcelot Gobbo amuses us considerably by describing the conflict in his mind between his desire to quit Shylock’s service and his sense of duty which requires him to continue serving Shylock. This conflict according to him is one which takes place between his conscience and the fund. His befooling of his aged, blind father is an example of farcical humour. But of, Launcelot Gobbo is capable also of making witty remarks. For instance he says if all the Jews turn Christian the price of hogs would rise greatly and it would become difficult to get a slice of bacon at any price in Venice. Launcelot sometimes plays on words to make jokes, and it is for this reason that Lorenzo calls him a “wit snapper.” We find ample proof of Portia’s brilliant intellect at least on two occasions in the play. We notice her psychological insight into human character, particularly, when she expresses her opinion about some of her suitors, and is particularly witty and ironical. It is noteworthy what she says about the Neapolitan Prince, ‘Ay that’s a colt indeed, for he doth nothing but talk of his horse; and he makes it a great appropriation to his own good parts that he can show himself’. She speaks in the most sarcastic tone when she describes the Scottish Lord, that he hath a neighbourly charity in him; for he borrowed a box of the ear of the Englishmen, and swore he would pay him again when he was able; I think, the Frenchman became his surety , and sealed under for another. “Personally, talking while on the other side, the present didactic drama, there I have a risen apathy on the character of Shylock! I feel it no way should be taught that William Shakespeare throughout, has an intension to discriminate between a Christian and a Jew. A silent play as I motivate upon, where has shown particular-destiny of any a human being, his psycho-pattern and feelings in the institutional-society, a cobweb of human relations, its impacts and so on such consequences as a result of what the man faces ,whether of good or bitter. I therefore on regard to the play, put it to prove that indeed the whole drama is A Romantic Comedy.” Rituparna Ray Chaudhuri Then again we find sufficient proof of Portia’s brilliant intellect in the Trial-Scene. Mrs. Janeson compares Portia with Rosalind, Beatrice and other heroines of Shakespeare who belong strictly to the intellectual type. Nobody probably not even Dr. Bellario, could have pleaded Antonio’s case in the court as successfully as Portia has done. It is also remarkable how Portia like all intelligent lawyers defends Shylock by assuring him that the bond and its terms are perfectly valid according to law, and that he warns Antonio in the open court that he shall to pay as forfeiture of the bond to Shylock a pound of flesh from nearest his heart. Portia further encourages Shylock by making an appeal to him for mercy. Lastly she requests Shylock to get a surgeon nearby so that when the flesh would be cut out from Antonio’s breast he may not bleed death. But of, Shylock feeling too sure of his strong legal position does not listen to any request of Portia, little suspecting that Portia has other weapons in her armoury to upturn all the favourable points of law against Shylock. Portia drives Shylock slowly into a corner where only the letter of law and not its essence is honoured; naturally Portia all of a sudden , turns the tables against Shylock and tells him that he can surely cut out a pound of flesh from Antonio’s breast but if he cuts off the flesh even by a grain more or less or if he sheds a single drop of blood, because these two things are not in the bond as there is no mention of any surgeon, he will have to pay his own life as penalty for violating the terms of the bond. Shylock is completely outwitted and is at the mercy of the Duke. That is how Portia displays her sharpest intelligence, her quickest presence of mind and her wonderful power of using quibbles of law to the best advantage of her client as all shrewd lawyers do. ANTONIO Therefore, go: These griefs and losses have so bated me, That I shall hardly spare a pound of flesh To-morrow to my bloody creditor. Well, gaoler, on. Pray God, Bassanio come To see me pay his debt, and then I care not!
According to a critic, Gratiano keeps up the ball of mirth and good humour by his agreeably talk. He describes in a satirical manner the kind of man who pretends to be wise by maintaining a deliberate silence: “I am Sir Oracle, and when I ope my lips, let no dogs bark.” Gratiano’s promise to Bassanio to observe decorum, and not to talk too much at Belmont is another example of his witty manner of speaking. In the Trial Scene, Gratiano’s wit takes the form of a parody of Shylock’s praise of the judge in the course of the proceedings in Shylock’s cause against Antonio. Here Gratiano repeats or echoes Shylock’s remark with devastating effect: “A Daniel! A Daniel come to judgement! Thank you, Jew, for teaching me that word!” Wit of Gratiano expressed here becomes bitter and almost fierce.
ANTONIO Let him alone: I'll follow him no more with bootless prayers. He seeks my life; his reason well I know: I oft deliver'd from his forfeitures Many that have at times made moan to me; Therefore he hates me.
The Ring-Episode is wholly comic. It contributes the greatest fun to the play. The fun which is available from the Launcelot-Gobbo scene is no better than buffoonery and this kind of fun can be enjoyed only by groundlings or the lowest class of the audience, whereas the fun of the Ring-episode can be enjoyed by the decent section of the audience because it has more of decent humour than of buffoonery or vulgar humour like the trick or disguise , the exchange and presentation of rings is an interesting device to delight the audience particularly at the end of the play. Portia and Nerissa take their husbands to task for having given away the rings which they had sworn never to part with. The husbands try to convince the two wives that they had given the rings to the judge and to the judge’s clerk respectively, but the wives refuse to believe the husbands-version of the fact. Shylock is regarded as the sternest, the crudest, the most reserve character in the whole play, and yet the readers can find some comic element in him. Shylock is so self-centered and self-conscious that he is not even aware when he excites laughter in the audience by his unguarded words, gestures and behavior. It is particularly in his moments of discomfiture that Shylock is most unguarded and when we are tempted to laugh at his expense. When Launcelot leaves Shylock’s service and goes to Antonio, Shylock says to him that he shall have no occasion to eat like a pig or sleep like a wild cat or tear off his clothes by constantly rolling in bed, every syllable of his words excites laughter in us. Then again when he goes to attend the dinner at Bassanio’s place, he says that he is not going there out of any love but out of hatred, and only to feed upon the extravagant Christian so that he may be ruined, we are tempted to laugh because the very idea of running a man of Bassanio’s position by eating only one dinner at his place is really absurd. Then again we recollect the words of Shylock which he had spoken to Antonio formerly that he would do everything with a Christian but not dine with him or pray with him in the same church, we begin to laugh in ourselves. We cannot really resist our laughter when Shylock is in fits of anger against Jessica and of his hatred for Lorenzo being a Christian, and also when his acute grief due to the loss of his gold and jewels bursts out.
SHYLOCK Signior Antonio, many a time and oft In the Rialto you have rated me About my moneys and my usances: Still have I borne it with a patient shrug, For sufferance is the badge of all our tribe. In the Court Scene also Shylock arouses laughter when he appreciates the legal wisdom of Portia and says, ‘A Daniel has come to judgment, a Daniel’. A survey of Portia’s character will help us to enjoy her portrayal as drawn by Shakespeare and provide entertainment to the readers as well as the spectators. But in, while Portia’s role is passive in the first part of the play, enough is revealed of her in her conversation in this part of the play, to excile our interest in her and to make her an object of admiration. There cannot be any doubt about the personal charms of Portia because otherwise so many suitors would not have come from different countries of the world for winning her as their bride. The Prince of Morocco not being a cultured man, must have been impressed by the bodily charms of Portia; he had probably no idea of Portia’s intellectual charms which we shall notice particularly in the Trial Scene. Even Bassanio, who is himself a handsome person and with whom Portia falls in love before his choosing of the caskets, remarks about her personal charms just after discovering Portia’s portrait in the leaden caskets. In Twelfth Night, Viola boldly assumes the direction of her own affairs almost from the very moment that she is introduced to us. But of, it is only when the climax of the play is reached with Bassanio’s successful choice of the lead casket that Portia seems to come into her own. There is irony in the situation in which Portia appears in the Venetian court in the disguise of a man wearing a lawyer’s clothes. The audience in the theatre knows that the judge is a woman and Bassanio’s wife. But of, nobody in the court not even Bassanio knows the judge’s real identity. It is in this male disguise that Portia manages to get her ring from Bassanio. Nerissa follows her mistress in getting her rig from Gratiano. The very disguise adopted by the two women and everybody else’ ignorance of their real identity give rise to comic irony which is very amusing. When the play The Merchant of Venice is mentioned anywhere, people think of two persons namely Shylock and Portia; and these two persons are inseparable from each other in our minds because we remember Shylock chiefly as a villain wanting to take the life of his enemy, Antonio’s and we think of Portia as the person who defeats Shylock’s evil design. Portia occupies a high position among the heroines created by Shakespeare. She produces a powerful impression on our minds with her personal charms, brilliant, intellect, sense of humour, and sparkling wit, her modesty, humility and feminity, generous disposition, her self-confidence and sense of duty and honour. Above all, she has a true concept of love as consisting in an ardous desire to seek and promote the happiness of all around her. She differs from the other heroines of Shakespearian comedy. Rosalind in As You Like It takes her fortune into her own hands from the time that she is banished from his court by the usurping Duke. Again we find sufficient proof of Portia’s brilliant in the Trial Scene. Mrs. Jameson compares Portia with Rosalind, Beatrice and other heroines of Shakespeare who belong strictly to the intellectual type. Nobody probably not even Dr. Bellario could have pleaded Antonio’s case in the court as successfully as Portia has done. Portia, like all intellectual lawyers defend Shylock by assuring him that the bond and its terms are perfectly valid according to law, and that he warns Antonio in the open court s that he shall have to pay as forfeiture of the bond to Shylock a pound of flesh from nearest his heart. Portia further encourages Shylock by making an appeal to him for mercy. Lastly she requests Shylock to get a surgeon nearby so that when the flesh would be cut out from Antonio’s breast he may not bleed to death. But of, Shylock feeling too sure of his strong legal position does not listen to any request of Portia, little suspecting that Portia has other weapons in her armoury to upturn all favourable points of law against Shylock. Portia drives Shylock slowly into n a corner where only the letter of law and not its essence is honored; naturally Portia all of a sudden turns the tables against Shylock and tells him that he can surely cut out a pound of flesh from Antonio’s breast but if he cuts the flesh even by grain more or less, or if he sheds single drop of blood, because these two things , are not in the bond as there is no mention of any surgeon he will have to pay his own life as penalty for violating the terms of the bond. Shylock is completely outwitted and is at the mercy of the Duke. That is how Portia displays her sharpest intelligence, her quickest presence of mind and her wonderful power of using quibbles of law to the best advantage of her client as all shrewd lawyers do. It is only Shylock in the whole play who can match Portia in her strength of character, in her determination, in her courage, in her self-reliance and in her sharp intelligence, in her ready mind and in all other mainly qualities. But of, then even Shylock is completely defeated by her in the open court. When Portia gets the news of Antonio’s misfortune she at once sends Bassanio with money to Venice and she too prepares herself to defend Antonio. In the court against Shylock. How quickly she decides and also acts accordingly. All this is nothing but a positive proof of her readiness of mind, her firmness in resolve and her self-confidence; otherwise no other in the world could have performed all these tasks and the manner in which Portia defends Antonio and saves him finally from the clutches of Shylock or rather from the jaws of death is indeed marvelous. Shylock, who considers money as God, at first expresses his unwillingness to lend any money to Bassanio in Antonio’s name on the ground that Antonio has always ill-treated him and always defamed him. Antonio, who happens to join his friend Bassanio at this time, tells Shylock that in future also he would treat him in the same manner and would still spurn him and spit on him. Shylock then changes his tune and says that he wants to befriend Antonio while Antonio is unduly losing his temper. Shylock agrees to lend the required amount of three thousand ducats to Antonio if Antonio signs a bond containing the condition that, in the event of Antonio signs a bond containing the condition that, in the event of Antonio failing to repay the loan within a period of three months, Shylock would be entitled to cut off a pound of flesh from nearest Antonio’s heart. Shylock says that this dangerous clause about the pound of flesh is intended by him merely as a joke. All his talk about putting in the condition “in a merry sport” was merely intended to deceive. But at, it is another matter if by this he meant more than to ensure that he would have respite from Antonio’s mental persecution of himself during the period that the bond was current. It is the elopement of his daughter Jessica with Lorenzo, the Christian friend of Antonio, which inflames his worst passion of hatred and vindictiveness to such an extent that when the opportunity, offers to wreck a terrible revenge on the Christian in the person of Antonio, he is determined to take it. Bassanio opposes the proposed bond which seems dangerous to him , but Antonio signs the bond, telling Bassanio that his ships would soon return, and that he would then be in a position to repay the loan much before the expiry period of three months. “Aspects of Shylock’s Personality: In spite of his negative attributes, Shylock is not a totally black character. He has some redeeming traits of character. Firstly, his revengeful attitude is the result of the insults hurled upon him by Antonio. The betrayal by his daughter, who elopes with Lorenzo and takes along with her money and jewels, further invokes his fury against Antonio. Secondly, he shows his intellectual strength by the force of his arguments. He is outwitted in the Trial Scene by Portia only by a legal quibble. Thirdly, Shylock has tender memories of his dead wife, Leah. He feels shocked to know that his daughter gave away his dead wife’s ring for a monkey. Fourthly, he speaks eloquently and convincingly of the injustices suffered by the Jews. Fifthly, he arouses sympathy for the suffering he has undergone. He bears all the insults and humiliation because of his Jewish race. The betrayal of his daughter also evokes sympathy for him. Thus, Shylock emerges as a powerful character, who inspite of his hateful nature, wins sympathy of the audience.” – (Workbook of the Drama) “My pictorial visions of the theatrical performance dazzle in front of my eyes. I need to play different roles. Here I mean, my Teaching on the wooden-stage is also I am learning. Whether it is Macbeth, or As you Like it or The Merchant of Venice, I return myself partially on the then Elizabethan playhouse with the original text in my hand; to enhance the climax along with beauties of thoughts to my audience, i.e. my students through my dialogues, my lectures.”- Rituparna Ray Chaudhuri. ANTONIO Mark you this, Bassanio, The devil can cite Scripture for his purpose. An evil soul producing holy witness Is like a villain with a smiling cheek, A goodly apple rotten at the heart: O, what a goodly outside falsehood hath!
There are plenty of instances in the play in which Portia displays her wit and sometimes her sense of irony and satire. We notice how humorously and sarcastically she criticizes her suitors. We notice also how she talks humorously about her own male attire and of the role of the lawyer she is going to play. We notice further how she outwits Shylock with her arguments, which have got an undercurrent of ironical humour. Then, again, we notice her humour particularly in the Ring-Episode.
SHYLOCK Well, thou shalt see, thy eyes shall be thy judge, The difference of old Shylock and Bassanio:-- What, Jessica!--thou shalt not gormandise, As thou hast done with me:--What, Jessica!-- And sleep and snore, and rend apparel out;-- Why, Jessica, I say!
But of, Portia’s humour should be distinguished from Gratiano’s humour and also from Launcelot’s farce. Gratiano is mostly humorous and but very seldom witty, while Launcelot is always farcical and seldom humrrous; but Portia is very witty. The reason is that Portia is far more cultured than Gratiano or Lancelot. Farce is born of animal spirits, and it appeals also to the animal spirits, and it appeals also to the animal spirits and to persons who are without intelligence. Humour is born of heat and it appeals to the heart of emotions, while wit is born of intelligence, and it appeals also to the intellect. Portia’s humour or wit can be understood or appreciated by the intelligent, cultured and decent people only; Gratiano’s humour can be appreciated by all people except the idiots, while Launcelot’s humour can be appreciated by the vulgar and illiterate people. Regarding Portia’s humour and wit, Verity says, ‘gifted with five sense of humour she delights in a comic situation such as the Ring- Episode, where her assumption of anger illustrates her versality. But of, how quickly she sees when a jest has gone far enough, how tactfully she drops it. She has a very pretty sense of wit, which at need be unpleasantly keen, as we feel when she is speaking of her suitors. Yet she never speaks seriously a singled word of caustic satire to anyone. SHYLOCK 'Fair sir, you spit on me on Wednesday last; You spurn'd me such a day; another time You call'd me dog; and for these courtesies I'll lend you thus much moneys'?
When the Prince of Arragon says after having chose the wrong casket in which the figure of an idiot is concealed, ‘Is that my prize? Are my deserts no better?’ Portia most seriously replied with some mischievous joy in her heart at the sad disappointment of the Prince and also at his vanity “To offend and judge are distinct offices and of opposite natures.” In the open court when Bassanio says to Antonio that he is prepared to sacrifice his wife who is dearer than his own life for the sake of saving Antonio’s life, Portia most wittily remarks, ‘your wife would give you little thanks of she were by to hear you make the offer.” When again, Bassanio refuses to present his ring to Portia as the reward of her services in the court Portia smartly and pointed remarks, ‘I see, you are liberal in offers. You taught me first to beg; and now methinks, you teach me how a beggar should be answered.” Last of all when Portia, Nerissa, Bassanio and Gratiano all return to Belmont and when Nerissa begins to quarrel with Gratiano over the Ring, Portia talks very innocently and mischievously about her own ring only to put Bassanio in a very false position. Although Portia is a woman with a powerful intellect and extraordinary powers of reasoning, she yet remains a woman at heart with a lot of modesty, humility and compassion. When she disguises herself as a man, she succeeds eminently in playing a masculine role. But of, on all other occasions she shows that modesty leads to a woman, the grace and the charm which make her a lovable person. When Bassanio puts his hand on the lead casket, she feels overwhelmed by a feeling of ecstasy, and is hardly able to restrain her feelings on this occasion. When he actually opens the lead casket and finding her picture in it, claims her with a kiss, she makes a speech which embodies the very spirit of humility. She describes herself as an unschooled, unlessoned and unpractised woman, and then goes on to make a complete surrender of herself of the man who has won him as his wife. On learning the plight of Bassanio’s dearest friend, she offers to Bassanio any amount of money that he may need for the rescue of Antonio from the clutches of the Jew. This reveals her generous and large heartedness. ANTONIO This was a venture, sir, that Jacob served for; A thing not in his power to bring to pass, But sway'd and fashion'd by the hand of heaven. Was this inserted to make interest good? Or is your gold and silver ewes and rams?
Shakespeare’s greatest achievement as a dramatist, lies in the sphere of character portrayal and The Merchant of Venice fully illustrates this aspect of his genius. Shakespeare has portrayed Portia as a living person-witty, vibrant, brimming with energy and zest, dynamic, highly intelligent, and ingenious, and yet very modest and unassuming. Mrs. James remarks: “A prominent feature in Portia’s character is that confiding, buoyant spirit, which mingles with all her thoughts and affections. And here let me observe that I never yet met in real life, not ever read in tale or history of any woman, distinguished for intellect of the highest order, who was not also remarkable for this trusting spirit, this hopefulness and cheerfulness of temper, which is compatible with the most serious habits and the most profound sensibility.” BASSANIO Look on beauty, And you shall see 'tis purchased by the weight; Which therein works a miracle in nature, Making them lightest that wear most of it:
Bassanio needs money to equip himself for his trip to Belmont where he wishes to try his luck at winning a rich heiress by the name of Portia as his wife. It is one of the little ironies of life that Bassanio should have been led to seek from Shylock, above all people, the loan of the three thousand ducats which he required to equip himself fittingly to appear at Belmont as one of the suitors for the hand of the fair Portia. This was particularly unfortunate because the surety for the due repayment of the loan was to Antonio. There was a long-standing and deep-seated enmity between Shylock and Antonio, and responsibility for this enmity cannot be laid exclusively at the door of Shylock. Unfortunately the Jew was a hard person to do business with, and his cruelty towards his bankrupt debtor from the clutches of Shylock is exactly what we should have expected, and if Shylock made this a grievance and if it were his only grievance against Antonio, he would stand condemned straight away in the opinion of every reasonable person. But of, Shylock’s bitterness is more deep rooted and proceeds from causes which do but little honour to Antonio. In an age when Jew baiting was as favourite a pastime as bear-baiting, we can understand how thoughtless people of the type of Gratiano should have indulged in such mockery of the Jew as occurs when the tables are turned on Shylock in the Trial Scene. But at, Antonio is a gentleman of superior culture and refinement, universally looked up to not only because of his success as a merchant but also because of his magnamity and generousity. Yet he allows himself to be caught up in the net of prevalent Anti-Jewish prejudices, and he makes it a point to omit no opportunity which offers, to insult Shylock in public and particularly in places where merchants most do congregate. Shylock’s remonstrates produce no result other than an emphatic declaration from Antonio to the effect that he will have no hesitation in repeating such behavior. That Shylock is a usurper and a miser and that he loves money for its own sake, cannot be denied, but his mercenary-mindedness has not deprived him ordinary of human sensibilities, nor has it crushed out the existence of his strong racial and religious sentiments. On the contrary, the treatment which is meted out to him has tended to make him extremely bigoted in these respects when, therefore, Antonio takes to reviling his race and religion, in addition to heaping insults and affronts on him personally, we feel that the limit of human endurance has been reached. Hence, there is nothing improbable in the circumstance that Shylock should have entertained a lodged hatred in his bosom against Antonio and should have been awaiting his opportunity to get even with him. Very few modern women have the same sense of duty and obedience to their parents or elders as Portia is found to possess. She being economically independent after the death of her father, could easily dishonor his will which put restrictions upon her marriage by the lottery of the caskets. She could have easily told Bassanio the secrets of the caskets and thereby helps him in choosing the right casket. But of, she did not violate her father’s will. It shows that Portia has a great sense of duty. The moment she hears the bad news about Antonio she at once sends away Bassanio to Venice with sufficient money to help Antonio in this difficult position. We also find how Portia sacrifices her own pleasures, her money, the company of the husband and even goes to the length of playing the role of the lawyer in the court of law in order to save her husband’s friend. This shows, on the one hand, her sense of duty and also her real love for her husband, and at the same time her uncommon kindness of heart. LAUNCELOT It is much that the Moor should be more than reason: but if she be less than an honest woman, she is indeed more than I took her for.
Bassanio, winning Portia as his wife and so very rich learnt about the crisis in Antonio’s life. He rushed back to Venice with plenty of money which Portia has generously given him so that he can appease the Jew by offering him any amount as compensation to him for Antonio’s inability to have repaid the loan within the prescribed period of time. But of, shylock rejects all offers of money. For all her qualities critics describe Portia as the Queen of this play and as the Muse of wisdom and love. In Shakespeare’s play The Merchant of Venice the Bond Story is a story of spite and vindictiveness. It has eventually been conquered by an intellectual acuteness informed by a true spirit of love and tolerance. The bond story involves four characters- Antonio, Shylock, Bassanio and Portia. It is to be admitted that it is the balance, harmony and steadiness of her nature which gives the character of “balanced completeness, of rounded perfection and felicity of loveliness:, to the play. She sets the tune so to say, of the whole piece and all characters are so adjusted as to move in unison with her. Portia’s personal charms make her one of outstanding heroines ever created by Shakespeare. Her sense of humour and also her satire are brilliantly exposed when she speaks about Falconbridge, the young baron of England, ‘He is a proper man’s picture; but alas, who can converse with a doubled show? How oddly he is suited. I think he bought his doubtlet in Italy, his bonnet in Germany, and his behavior everywhere.’ She speaks in the most sarcastic tone when she describes the Scottish Lord. “That he hath a neighbourly charity in him for he borrowed a box of the ear of the English man and swore he would pay him again when he was able, I think the Frenchmen became his surety, and sealed under for another.’ In the trial, Shylock is the complainant, Antonio is the defendant. Portia disguised as a male and wearing a lawyer’s clothes, is the judge. In terms of the bond, Portia allows Shylock to cut off a pound of Antonio’s flesh from any part his body that Shylock likes. Portia allows him to do so because all appeals to him for mercy, including one by Portia herself, having failed to move him. But of, Portia stops him just when Shylock proceeds to carry out his purpose and says that the bond allows him only to cut off a pound of flesh but that he must not shed a single drop of blood. This interpretation of the bond makes it impossible for Shylock to cut off the flesh. Thereupon Shylock says that he would be satisfied if he paid three times the amount of the loan which Antonio had failed to repay. But of, Portia says that having already refused the offer of money in the open court Shylock can only have a pound of flesh, and can have it without shedding any blood. This means that Shylock can have nothing at all, neither the flesh nor the money. Shylock is now a defeated man. Moreover, when Shylock gets ready to leave the court in a state of deep dejection, Portia informs him that according to the laws of Venice, he is now liable to a severe punishment. She says that Shylock had tried to kill a Christian of Venice by wanting to cut off a pound of flesh from nearest his heart, and that Shylock’s own life is therefore forfeit now. Eventually, Shylock’s life is spared by the Duke of Venice but he is freed to become a Christian and also to give away half of his wealth to his daughter Jessica and her husband Lorenzo, and to level the other half of his wealth to them at the time of his death. Thus is the Jew punished severely with the very weapon with which he had wanted to take Antonio’s life. Shylock’s defeat with his own weapons in the Trial Scene is in the fitness of things. He stood by the letter of the law and he almost perished by it. however much it may be argued that Shakespeare intended that we should sympathise with him as a man whose mind and spirit had been warped by the persecution which his race, and he in particular, had been subjected to, we cannot escape the fact that there was something almost inhuman in the relentless with which he insisted on exercising what he considered to be his legal right to take the life of Antonio is as cruel a way as human ingenuity could devise. Hence, we cannot agree with the view that he is more sinned against than sinning and that he is unfairly treated when a sort of composite judgement is delivered against him at the conclusion of the trial. SHYLOCK I'll have my bond; I will not hear thee speak: I'll have my bond; and therefore speak no more. I'll not be made a soft and dull-eyed fool, To shake the head, relent, and sigh, and yield To Christian intercessors. Follow not; I'll have no speaking: I will have my bond.
Bassanio’s wife Portia hits upon a plan to rescue Antonio from the clutches of the Jew. She is able to prevail upon the eminent lawyer, Bellario, living in Padna, to send her to Venice to act as the judge in Shylock’s case against Antonio. She disguises herself as a man and dressed as a lawyer, goes to court in Venice where the case is to be tried. The Duke of Venice welcomes Portia because she has been recommended by Bellario. Actually the Duke had invited Bellario to come from Padua and act as the judge, but Bellario has expressed his inability to accept this assignment and has sent Portia to take his place. After a definite period, news comes that all Antonio’s ships have been wrecked on the seas. Antonio is now reduced to a state of bankruptcy. A question of some importance is as to whether Shylock had the money not been forthcoming for its liquidation when the bond fell due, would have insisted on the penalty of pound of flesh if there had been no new cause of provocation offered him after the bond has been signed. That he had a sinister intention in mind when he proposed the condition about the forfeit of the pound of flesh is not open to much doubt. The period of three months, prescribed in the bond for the repayment of the loan, is also now nearing its end. It also becomes evident that Shylock would demand the pound of flesh which has been specified in the bond as the penalty for Antonio‘s failure to repay the loan. Antonio’s failure to repay the loan had at that time seemed to Antonio, and impossibility has turned not only into a possibility but a certainty. Three months have now expired; and the Jew then actually files a suit against Antonio, demanding the penalty specified in the bond. ANTONIO I am as like to call thee so again, To spit on thee again, to spurn thee too. If thou wilt lend this money, lend it not As to thy friends; for when did friendship take A breed for barren metal of his friend? Shylock’s Puritanical intolerance of everything which did not fall in line with his own rigidly severe way of thinking is reprehensible. Equally reprehensible is Antonio’s intolerance of the Jew because of his race and his religion. The mental agony which Antonio endures until Portia delivers the judgement in his favour is not as cruel as it may seem. It will be noted that Portia herself is in no particular hurry to relieve it. Her prolongation of her arguments and remonstrance with Shylock is meant no doubt, to lead Shylock until he entraps himself so securely as to leave himself no means of escape. But of, it is also intended to prolong Antonio’s mental agony, and we may readily infer that, however graciously Portia speaks to and of Antonio she could not have been without a sense of his intolerance which needed to be curbed. Thus Bond Story may be regarded as something of a plea for tolerance. The punishment which Shylock receives at the end of the trial of Antonio is very excessive. Our sympathies during the trial are wholly with Antonio, and the Jew appears to us to be a monster and a devil. The Jew pays no heed to the appeals for mercy from any quarter; and he feels most jubilant when it seems that he would be allowed to cut off a pound of Antonio’s flesh and thus be enabled to put an end to the life of a Christian whom he regards as his worst enemy. Here he appears as a blood thirsty man determined to kill his foe. Here we regard him as an abominable and detestable person. But of, when the tablets have been turned upon him, and he is then required to part with almost all his wealth and also compelled to turn a Christian, we feel that the punishment awarded to him is too severe. It is here he excites our sympathy to such an extent that we begin to think that he has been gravely wronged. It is here that we accept the oft-quoted dictum that he is as much sinned against as sinning. It was enough to have dispossessed him of all his wealth too. But of, it is going too far to compel him to change his religion and become a Christian. At this point he totters out of the court, a broken man with a shattered mind, with no one at all to speak a word of comfort to him. Such punishment might not have moved the Elizabethan audiences to sympathy for Shylock, but it does move us to sympathy for him, and to regard him as a victim of Christian fanaticism and persecution. Fortunately the Jews of our times have distinguished themselves so conspicuously in various spheres of human endeavour that they are no longer treated as out casts and as a compatible race of people except by the countries of the middle east. SHYLOCK Then meet me forthwith at the notary's; Give him direction for this merry bond, And I will go and purse the ducats straight, See to my house, left in the fearful guard Of an unthrifty knave, and presently I will be with you.
In The Merchant of Venice there are three types of loves. Each type of love has its own peculiar quality. There is love of Bassanio and Portia; there is the Jessica-Lorenzo love-affair, and there is also the love-affair of Nerissa-Gratiano. The love affair of Bassanio and Portia is outstanding. In the play. In his first speech to Antonio about his desire to win Portia as his wife, Bassanio appears to us to be kind of fortune-hunter or dowry-seeker. It is quite clear from his utterance that he wants to win Portia as his wife because she is a rich heiress while he is a young man in difficult circumstances. But of, afterwards we find that he not, after all, a money-grabber or greedy fellow looking for a wealthy woman by marrying whom he can enrich himself. PORTIA One half of me is yours, the other half yours, Mine own, I would say; but if mine, then yours, And so all yours. O, these naughty times Put bars between the owners and their rights!
Gratiano, though prosaic, in the love affair but he does not lack the sense of humour. When Bassanio wants to be known if he has secured any bride for himself, Bassanio’s reply is remarkable. Nerissa is very intelligent and cultured woman with a keen sense of humour. Actually in the love affair between Nerissa and Gratiano there is nothing romantics. Gratiano is attracted by her refined manners, refined talk and refined demeanour while he arrives at Belmont in Bassanio’s company. Gratiano is also a very intelligent man with a ready wit and a keen sense of humour. When Gratiano proposes marriage Nerissa gives a reply which is quite prosaic. She says that she would marry him if his lord namely Bassanio, is able to win her mistress, Portia. There is nothing poetic or intense in this kind of love. Both of them are practical minded. Their love is not a matter of passion. Though they love each other well enough but they are not madly or romantically in love as Jessica and Lorenzo. As a cheerful and witty spirit, Nerissa forms a good match with Gratiano, and that is why probably, they feel attracted towards each other when they meet at Belmont. Like Gratiano she is very wise and also quite shrewd in her insight into human nature and also in her observations about human character. “SHAKESPEARE IS NEITHER FOR NOR AGAINST SHYLOCK. SHAKESPEARE NEVER TAKES SIDES.” The play treats the subject of love; this subject is looked at from different view-points; it is looked at from the view-point of sex in the relations between Bassanio and Portia, Lorenzo and Jessica and Gratiano and Nerissa; it is looked at from the view point of friendship in the relations between Antonio and Bassanio; it is viewed from another point of view in the relation between Shylock and Antonio. Thus this play deals with love in its varied aspects. Man’s nature is to overpower, subdue, conquer and possess everything while a woman’s nature is to yield up everything, even her body and soul to a man. Who she considers in her heart of hearts as her master. Even the most modern woman must and does feel that she is the possession of man, and every man, whether civilized or uncivilized, feels all the while that he is the master of woman’s body and soul. Bassanio has found in Portia certain other qualities which have charmed him that is why he becomes eloquent and poetic in comparing her to the golden fleece of ancient mythology and in comparing her to Brutus’ Portia. Though Bassanio appears a fortune hunter the very beginning of the play, but a thorough analysis of his character shows that he has the true heart of love and he loves Portia sincerely. Similarly Portia too is in very much love with Bassanio. She remembers having seen him on a previous occasion; and she had formed an excellent opinion about him at that time. When Bassanio succeeded in selecting the right casket Portia was overwhelmed with joy. ANTONIO Content, i' faith: I'll seal to such a bond And say there is much kindness in the Jew.
In ancient classical plays, comic and tragic elements were not mingled but were kept separate from each other. In The Merchant of Venice they have been intermixed. The play is romantic in its combination of the serious and the gay; and it is romantic in its mingling of the two main stories in its being a delightful piece of story-telling and in the freshness and frankness of its two love stories of Portia and Bassanio, and of Lorenzo and Jessica. SHYLOCK Nay, that's true, that's very true. Go, Tubal, fee me an officer; bespeak him a fortnight before. I will have the heart of him, if he forfeit; for, were he out of Venice, I can make what merchandise I will. Go, go, Tubal, and meet me at our synagogue; go, good Tubal; at our synagogue, Tubal.
A romantic comedy is a kind of comedy in which the romantic elements are mingled with comic elements, where the romantic elements are mingled with comic elements, where the romantic elements delight and enchant us and the comic elements provide the necessary laughter. It is such a play which appeals to us as it deals with fantastic elements, with romantic setting where we know that things will fall into place at the end and everything would end happily and the love between the hero and heroine will achieve fruition in marriage. As mentioned, the romantic comedies never intended to follow the classical norms of comedy as it is a completely new genre which has attributes of its own. This friendship between a grave man, bordering on old age, and a young, gay, affectionate, wild fellow capable of better things and nice in honour- this friendship, says Brooke, is instinct with the spirit of romance. LORENZO, he is in love with Jessica, and plans to steal her from her father’s house. (Oxford Edition: Shakespeare)
Beshrew me but I love her heartily; For she is wise, if I can judge of her, And fair she is, if that mine eyes be true, And true she is, as she hath proved herself, And therefore, like herself, wise, fair and true, Shall she be placed in my constant soul.
But of, then as in case of a few other plays, Shakespeare left the title of this play open to the reader and that is why he named it The Merchant of Venice so that the reader may take Antonio or Shylock as The Merchant of Venice. We have seen how in the case of Twelfth Night and As you like it Shakespeare left the choice of the title to his readers. The alternative titles suggested for The Merchant of Venice are the The Jew of Venice and The Lady of Belmont. So far as The Jew of Venice is concerned it can be a more suitable title than The Lady of Belmont, but then if we accept this title, we shall have to accept also Shylock as the hero of the play. But for, can Shylock be the hero when he is so greedy, mean, malicious and, when he is so much humiliated and penalized at the close of the play? Antonio is the hero of the play because he is noble, self-sacrificing and most gentle and sweet. Now, as regards The Lady of Belmont as the title of the play, it is not even half as suitable as The Jew of Venice because although Portia figure throughout the play as Shylock or Antonio. Portia may be the heroine of the caskets story. It is the romantic love of Lorenzo and Jessica that disregards religious distinctions and boundaries. Jessica is a Jew while Lorenzo is a Christian. Knowing that her father would feel horrified and extremely angry at her having fallen in love with a Christian youngman, Jessica runs away from home to marry Lorenzo. She has risked and hazarded all she hath, fortunately succeeds in proving himself to true lover who recognizes her excellence and who, therefore, resolves to remain always devoted to her. Any father in the position of Shylock would go mad with grief and anger. This is wholly romantic love which knows no bounds, no casteism, no religious boundaries. The truly romantic quality of this love affair comes out in that moon-light scene in which they both speak alternatively about some of the famous love affair of ancient and mythology. The names of persons are Italian; Antonio and Gratiano, Solanio and Salerio etc. are all Italian names. The name Gobbo is particularly Italian. The reference to the Gift of Pigeons (which Gobbo makes to Bassanio) is particularly Italian. The reference to gondola (in which the runaway couple was seen seated) gives to the play an Italian colour. One may say that both Antonio and Shylock are the merchants of Venice, and therefore, none in particular can be regarded as the real merchant of Venice. But of, this question depends upon another question for its solution, namely which of the merchant- Antonio and Shylock- is the real hero of the play. All critics and readers have agreed that Antonio is the hero of the play, because the play begins and ends with him, because Antonio is the noblest character in the whole play, because it is Antonio who borrows money from Shylock for Bassanio; it is Antonio for who borrows money from Shylock for Bassanio; it is Antonio for whom Portia comes all the way from Belmont to Venice to plead his case and save him from death; it is for Antonio that all people- the Duke of Venice , the merchants and others plead for money to Shylock, and it is for Antonio to whom our heart is drawn with sympathy ,love and regards from the beginning to the end of the play. And so far as Shylock is concerned our body and soul revolt against him throughout the play for his meanness., his cruel malice, his uncommon avarice except of course, when he is completely out-witted by Portia and baffled in the realization of even the original amount of money which he had lent to Bassanio, and when he is deprived of all his property and robbed even of his daughter by a member of the race which had been prosecuting him and the Jews for so many generation. Antonio is the only man who has been described as a merchant in the play. Shylock is not certainly a merchant. He is a money-lender or an answer. In the Trial Scene, the Duke explicitly refers to Antonio as “that royal merchant”, and when Portia enters the court and begins to function as the midge, she asks in so many words: “which is the merchant here, and which the Jew? Thus Antonio is the merchant in this play, and the play had been name after him. While giving the title of this play Shakespeare at first could not decide whether he should name the play after Antonio or after Shylock because these two characters are the leading but contraposed characters. Now the question is who is the real merchant of Venice? The confusion arises when we remember the original title of the play given it by Shakespeare. This play was entered on the Stationers’ Register in1598 with the following title: “A Book of the Merchant of Venice, otherwise called the Jew of Venice.” This title completely puzzles us and we cannot understand whether Shakespeare gives these title the “Merchant of Venice” and the “Jew of Venice” to the same person, Shylock, or these are alternative titles for the play and refer to the different characters- Antonio and Shylock respectively. In 1600 however, the play was published with a longer title that clears the confusion: “The Excellent History of the Merchant of Venice with the extreme cruelty of Shylock the Jew, towards the said Merchant; but she has no place in the Bond story except indirectly as the means of saving Antonio from the clutches of Shylock. GRATIANO Was not that letter from fair Jessica? LORENZO I must needs tell thee all. She hath directed How I shall take her from her father's house, What gold and jewels she is furnish'd with, What page's suit she hath in readiness. Shakespeare’s supremacy lies in this fact that he could see and understand so much of life, could pierce the heart of so many passions, without falling a prey to any aspect of life; so that we say of him that he is universal. Every phase of feeling lay within the scope of Shakespeare’s understanding and sympathy. There is no point of morals, of philosophy, of the conduct of life that he has not touched upon, no mystery of human nature that he has not penetrated. Specially on the aspect of love Shakespeare has enriched the world with his thought. Showing the different kind of love in this play Shakespeare has unveiled the pure mirth, bright and tender fancy, airy satire, ardent passion, questioning, into the deep and terrible mysteries of life. This made Jonson to utter; Shakespeare “was not of an age, but all of time.” So astonishingly widespread is his glory, that might also be said that, “he was not of a land lent of all lands.” Free of every theory, accepting all of life, rejecting nothing, uniting the real and the poetic, appalling to the most various men, to a rude workman asd to a wit, Shakespeare’s drama is a great river of life and beauty. The references to merchant-princes, to money-lending Jews and their synagogue, the reference to the trade of Venice with other places and to its freedom etc. give to the play an Italian colouring. The title of the play is justified if we look closely into the play. Antonio, is as it were, the connecting link of the whole play; it is his fortunes and career, his generousity, the bond which he executes, and the penalty which is called upon to pay- it is these which form the axis upon which the play revolves. Antonio is the centre round which all the other characters including even Shylock, are grouped. Though his part, from its quiet dignity and reserve, truly gives less scope than that of Shylock for the display of great histrionic powers, he is the pivot on which the whole action of the play turns. PORTIA Away, then! I am lock'd in one of them: If you do love me, you will find me out. Nerissa and the rest, stand all aloof. Let music sound while he doth make his choice;
Shylock his enemy and would be murderer; Portia his saviour. No doubt little is to be done by him, but much is to be done against him and for him in the play. His importance in the mechanism of the play cannot be exaggerated. In fact without Antonio, the play would fall to pieces. The play The Merchant of Venice is romantic firstly in the combination of the serious and the gay elements. In the classical plays of antiquity comedy and tragedy were sharply distinguished and kept entirely separate from each other. No comic play contained tragic elements and vice versa. But of, in the Romantic drama of Shakespeare, comedy and tragedy sometimes jostle each other. The terrible hatred of Shylock, the sense of an impending disaster in the life of Antonio and Shylock’s overwhelming ruin are tragic elements which are mingled with such comic elements as the wit of Gratiano and Portia, the humour of Launcelot and to the play a romantic character. It is romantic also in its defiance of the unities. The ancient classical plays deserved these unities but the romantic drama of Shakespeare does not. Again, what can be more romantic than a tale of love and of adventure? A pair of lovers are always a romantic subject, because wooing is the most exciting of men’s emotional experiences. Youth in love is the most alluring theme for romantic comedy. The Merchant of Venice is Romantic, therefore, by virtue of the freshness and frankness of its two love-stories of Portia and Bassanio, of Lorenzo and Jessica. The first love story has its romantic elements in the bold adventure of Bassanio who goes to Belmont to win a wife, and in the passionate love that exists between the two. Moreover, during Shakespeare’s time Venice was the ‘seat of all pleasant delight’- ‘the pleasure place of all festivity, the revel of the world, the mosque of Italy. But at, this magnificence of Venice was due to her merchants, owners of enormous wealth, who lived like princes in palatial buildings, and amidst luxurious and elegant surroundings. Shylock as, does not have a certain claim so far as the title of the play is concerned. He is the most dominating person in the play and he has an intellectual vigour and an intellectual caliber much higher than that of Antonio or any other male figure in the play. Some readers might even think more appropriate to call this play “The Jew of Venice” but our opinion in the matter is that the present title is preferable. Antonio is dramatically as important as Shylock. If Antonio mere eliminated from the play, the whole story would collapse. Neither the Bond Story nor the Casket Story can come into existence without Antonio. Actually he is the pivot round which the action of the play revolves. Round him are all the characters grouped. Bassanio is his friend. ; Shylock is his enemy and Portia proves to be his savior. Antonio’s moral superiority to Shylock and his enormous importance in the play’s structure and design impart him a stature much higher than of Shylock; and so find the title The Merchant of Venice. It is argued by some critics that the title of the play is a misnomer for Antonio who is the merchant of Venice plays a minor and subordinate part in the drama and cannot be regarded as the hero. The point pressed is that the title should have indicated the most dominant character of the play; and a superficial examination of the play might lead one to regard Shylock as the hero. It is true that Shylock is the strongest, most graceful and dominating character of the play yet he also cannot be regarded as the hero of the play; in fact he is the villain of the piece. Hence a title from the name of Shylock would be as much inconsistent as that from the name of Antonio, for to regard Shylock as the principal character of the play is to miss the real meaning of it. Hence the title The Merchant of Venice possesses a romantic and glamour of its own, which the title ‘Jew of Venice’ can never have. SHYLOCK Gaoler, look to him: tell not me of mercy; This is the fool that lent out money gratis: Gaoler, look to him.
It is also worth remembering that Shakespeare does not always select the title of his play from the name of its hero. In Cymbeline, the character of king Cymbeline is perhaps the weakest possible and yet the play is named after him, as he is the peg on which the whole story hangs. It may be said that the word Merchant stands for Antonio and that Shakespeare named his play after Antonio because he looked upon Antonio as the hero. Nor can we quarrel with Shakespeare for having named the play thus. After all, Antonio is the pivot of the whole drama. Round him does the action revolve. He forms a centre around which all the other characters are grouped- Bassanio, his friend;
LAUNCELOT Truly, the more to blame he: we were Christians enow before; e'en as many as could well live, one by another. This making Christians will raise the price of hogs: if we grow all to be pork-eaters, we shall not shortly have a rasher on the coals for money.
The other love between Jessica and Lorenzo is still more romantic because of a greater element of adventure and because of the hazard that it involves. A Christian is in love with a Jewess and since the Jew would never agree to such a match, the lovers elope. A masque is arranged; Jessica slips out of her house in the guise of a boy; the masked procession is led by torches. This is all romance. But of, the most romantic feature in this love-story is the wonderful, moon-light scene between Jessica and Lorenzo in the beginning of Act V. Few passages in Shakespeare have more of the “far off magic poetry than this conversation between the lovers. Their love is decorated out with imagination and thoughts.” This “moonlight serenade of music” with its rich allusions to Greek Mythology (Troilus, Cressida, Medea etc.) is indeed a delight. The play is romantic also because of its Italian atmosphere. We are transported completely into an Italian atmosphere. We see in the distance the gondola which is bearing Jessica away with her lover. Italy the land of beauty and romance, the mistress of so many poets, the country of enchantment- such is the background of this play. What could be more romantic than an Italian background. According to Stopford, A Brooke, there is something romantic also in Antonio’s lavish friendship, ready to sacrifice not only wealth but life for the sake of Bassanio. The Merchant of Venice contains an abundance of romantic elements. This play has several aspects in it: it has a number of comic elements; it has a number of tragic elements and it has several romantic elements too. It is a play in which romance occupies a dominant position, with comic elements not lagging far behind. In fact, comedy and romances jostle each other in this play; and they have been mingled together in such a skilful manner that they have been mingled together in such a skilful manner that they form a harmonious pattern. And, of course, we cannot ignore the serious and tragic elements which also go into the making of the play as a whole. TO MY ANALYSIS- THE MERCHANT OF VENICE- WHO IS THE MERCHANT OF VENICE TO THE PLAY? CONTINUING READING THE DRAMA AFTER, WHO SHALL I REGARD ‘THE MERCHANT OF VENICE’? - I ANSWERED, THUS -- 1. IS ALONE ANTONIO THE HERO OF VENICE? 2. IS IT SHYLOCK, THE JEW THEN? 3. IT CAN, EITHER BE NONE OF THE CHRISTIAN OR THE JEW IS THE MERCHANT OF VENICE! 4. SHALL I THINK ABOUT BASSANIO (?)- THE PRODIGAL SON! 4. ON THE OTHER HAND, WELLWHAT IS ‘FORTUNE’, THE REAL ABSRACT ‘HERO’, and THE MERCHANT OF EVERY MAN…> WHO IS MORE ‘FORTUNATE VENETIAN, SCHOLAR AND A SOLDIER THEREFORE’...!
THEREFORE on the “structure of the exposition and the philosophy of a human destiny” of the PLAY -I CONCLUDE MY ANSWER, SHOULD OF: ANTONIO ON POSITION OF HIS -RESPECT is ‘THE MERCHANT OF VENICE’, OF WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE, A PORTRAYAL OF ROYALTY AND FRIENDSHIP WITH BASSANIO AND BASSANIO-PORTIA….(...ACT 3, SCENE 4...). Rituparna Ray Chaudhuri. There are three love-affairs in The Merchant of Venice each having is own peculiar quality. There is the love of Bassanio and Portia; there is the Jessica- Lorenzo love-affair and there is also the love-affair of Nerissa and Gratiano. The love-affair of Bassanio and Portia is the most outstanding in the play. In his first speech of Antonio about his desire to win Portia as his wife, Bassanio does appear to us to be kind of fortune-hunter or dowry seeker. It seems that he wants to win Portia as his wife because she is a rich heiress while he is a young man in straitened circumstances. But of, soon afterwards we find that he is not, after all, a money-grabber or a greedy fellow looking for a wealthy woman by marrying whom he can enrich himself. He has found in Portia certain other qualities which have charmed him. That is why he becomes eloquent and poetic in comparing her to the golden fleece of ancient mythology and in comparing her to Brutus’ Portia. And then, at Belmont, he really shows himself to be a true lover and not a dowry seeker. He does not wish to prolong his stay at Belmont unduly without trying his fortune. He feels that he would be undergoing a torture if he does not immediately enter the contest. (PORTIA) To ANTONIO Give me your gloves, I'll wear them for your sake; To BASSANIO And, for your love, I'll take this ring from you: Do not draw back your hand; I'll take no more; And you in love shall not deny me this.
Bassanio and Gratiano are also may be considered as romantic characters , otherwise how could Bassanio be so extravagant in spending all his fortunes in his love adventure, and how could Gratiano, with no resources venture out of Venice and succeed in winning the heart of Nerissa? Both Portia and Nerissa are equally romantic because they are equally successful in winning their husbands and also in charming them with their personality. The very trick of the ring played by both of them on their husbands reflect their romantic spirit. “Belmont , which is literally means ‘the hill beautiful’, is a poetic and romantic world as it is a world of love, friendship, music, and song where things flourish and where true love is aided to make a right choice. In Belmont, the scenes are set in the moonlit gardens as Shakespeare wanted it to be a world in opposition to Venice which is a world of business, of hatred, of revenge. In other words, the world of Belmont is in contrast to the harsh realities of the world of Venice. Belmont is the world of wealth and luxury where Portia is ‘richly left’ to be wooed and married through the lottery of the caskets. It is perfect place for the lovers to be united so that the play ends happily in wedlock.”- Romantic as well as Realistic: Workbook. Music, whilst BASSANIO comments on the caskets to himself SONG. Tell me where is fancy bred, Or in the heart, or in the head? How begot, how nourished? Reply, reply. It is engender'd in the eyes, With gazing fed; and fancy dies In the cradle where it lies. Let us all ring fancy's knell I'll begin it,--Ding, dong, bell.
Through the romantic elements of the play we find Shakespeare’s wise humanity, infectious gaiety or serene mirth, the piercing intensity of his passion and the splendor of his rhetoric. We must notice side by side, his amazing insight into human nature and the amazing fund of vitality with which he endows his characters. When reading we forget that the characters are more figments of imagination, puppets of a poet’s fancy and brain. They fall into stride beside us in the comfortable pathways of the world; their shadows haunt us for ever; they become the companion of joys and sorrows, the objects of our hopes and affections, the centre of our aspirations and passions; in short they become a part of our inmost being. BASSANIO Since I have your good leave to go away, I will make haste: but, till I come again, No bed shall e'er be guilty of my stay, No rest be interposer 'twixt us twain.
Stopford Brooke remarks about Portia. ‘She is as natural as Eve in Paradise’. While Hazlitt says about her, ‘She has certain degree of affection and pedantry about her, which is very unusual in Shakespeare’s women. Portia possess the chief masculine qualities of sharp intelligence, readiness of mind, courage and sense of humour, while her feminine qualities are obedience or loyalty to her father, gentleness or sweetness of temper, tenderness of heart, shyness and modesty in a very large measure. Portia has got the most current sense of justice because her conception of justice is fairness with mercy. The caskets story is a supreme example of romance. Although Portia can be won as a wife only through a choice of the right casket which on the surface seems to be a kind of lottery, yet the successful choice made by Bassanio is in its essence wholly romantic. It is true that Bassanio’s original motive in going to Belmont to try his luck at the caskets was to acquire wealth and richness through his marriage with an heiress; but his description of her beauty and her charm to Antonio before he leaves for Belmont shows his as a romantic young man. He describes Portia as “fair” and “fairer” than that word.” Then he compares her to the golden fleece of ancient classical mythology, and says that many suitors go to Belmont to win her in the same way as many adventures including Jason went to Colchos to acquire the golden fleece. After having made the right-choice of a casket, Bassanio praises Portia’s picture in poetic terms, and grows almost rapturous over it. Portia is even more romantic in her nature than Bassanio. She feels overwhelmed with joy when Bassanio puts his hand on the lead casket which contains her picture: and then she makes an almost ecstatic speech at Bassanio’s success. In her complete surrender, body and soul, to Bassanio, she again appears as a romantic type of woman. Both feel rapturously happy when Bassanio proves successful in his choice of a casket. This is indeed a case of love at first sight, a case of passionate love, and also a case of true love which is sure to last forever.
Many suitors come to Belmont but go back without trying their luck because of the hard condition that the unsuccessful suitor would never marry all his life. However three suitors do come forward to enter the context. The first to do so is the Prince of Morocco the second is the Prince of Arragon ; and the third is Bassanio. Portia had, on a previous occasion seen Bassanio and had liked him, but at that time there was no question of Bassanio’s wanting to marry Portia or of Portia’s encouraging Bassanio in this respect because the subject of Portia’s marriage was not yet under consideration.
Portia goes into ecstasy when she finds Bassanio can hardly believe his good fortune, while Portia makes a speech expressing her joy at his choice and saying that she is an unlessoned girl, unschooled and unpractised, but willing to learn in order to serve him better. She would be happy, to be directed by him, and she look upon him as her lord, her governor and her king. She further declares that her entire estate and her household including her servants and her herself now belong to him. She then gives him a ring and asks him never to part with it. If he loses the ring, she would think that his love for her has come to an end. Bassanio gives assurance and promises not to lose the ring in any way. The casket story in Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Venice circles around the prominent character Portia, a lady of Belmont. She is “fair and fairer than that word”, and a lady of wonderful virtues. Bassanio puts her in the way that she is no way inferior to the wife of the famous ancient Roman Senator, Brutus, and the daughter of the famous Roman, Cato. There cannot be any doubt about the personal charms of Portia because otherwise so many suitors would not have come from different corners of the world for winning her as their bride. The Prince of Morocco, not being a cultured man, must have been impressed by the bodily charms of Portia; he had probably no idea of Portia’s intellectual charms which we shall notice particularly in the Trial-Scene. Even Bassanio who is himself a handsome person and with whom Portia falls in love before his choosing of the Caskets, remarks about her personal charms just after discovering Portia’s portrait in the leaden caskets.
“And why do you worry about clothes? See how the flowers of the field grow. They do not labor or spin. Yet I tell you that not even Solomon in all his splendor was dressed like one of these. If that is how God clothes the grass of the field, which is here today and tomorrow is thrown into the fire, will he not much more clothe you—you of little faith? So do not worry, saying, ‘What shall we eat?’ or ‘What shall we drink?’ or ‘What shall we wear?’ For the pagans run after all these things, and your heavenly Father knows that you need them. But seek first his kingdom and his righteousness, and all these things will be given to you as well. Therefore do not worry about tomorrow, for tomorrow will worry about itself. Each day has enough trouble of its own.” - Do Not Worry: Matthew 6 New International Version (NIV)
Moreover we notice her psychological insight into human character, and brilliant intellect in the Trial- Scene. It is really mention worthy how Portia like all intelligent lawyers defends Shylock by assuring him that the bond and its terms are perfectly valid according to law, and that she warms Antonio in the open court that he shall have to pay as forfeiture of the bond to Shylock a pound of flesh from nearest his heart. Her sense of humour, duty and honour is also noteworthy. Next comes the turn of Arragon. He also examines the inscription on each casket. Turning to the silver casket he says that nobody in this world should go only to those persons who possess the necessary qualifications and have the required ability. This idea appeals to him of much that he puts his hand on the silver casket, thinking himself to be fully deserving of the hand of the beautiful Portia. On being opened, this casket is found to contain the picture of a blinking idiot. Thus the Prince of Arragon also fails in the test. PORTIA I stand for sacrifice The rest aloof are the Dardanian wives, With bleared visages, come forth to view The issue of the exploit. Go, Hercules!
A song is sung when Bassanio is selecting the casket. The purpose of this song is primarily to create a romantic atmosphere and thereby to make Bassanio forget the suspense and anxiety which is involved in the selection of the casket. Portia herself explains the significance of the song to Nerissa. Apart from Portia’s explanation, there is another significance of the song, namely, to convey a hint to Bassanio for selecting the right casket, although such a hint would be mostly unfair of Portia wants to honour the conditions of her father’s will. The song throws the hint that false love or fancy is born in the eye and not in the heart i.e. when people are guided by outward appearances of things they miss real love; or in other words, of Bassanio is tempted by glittering outside of either gold or silver, he will miss the right casket and also Portia along with it. That is why Bassanio in the very beginning argues against gold and silver while examining the mottos on the various caskets, and that is why, also he succeeds in choosing the leaden casket without much difficulty. Shakespeare has introduced also music while the Prince of Morocco and the Prince of Arragon are selecting the caskets, and also when Lorenzo and Jessica are enjoying the moonlight in the gardens of Portia’s house. All this music and song are intended chiefly to dramatic purpose to lend a romantic atmosphere, to reduce the tragic tension of the anxiety and suspense of the suitors while selecting the caskets, to prepare further for the tragic Trial Scene which, is yet to come in the fourth act. The song actually helps Bassanio to choose the right casket. No credit should go to Bassanio for selecting the right casket, because Bassanio is a person who believes in shows, in extravagance, in Princely styles in order to capture the imagination of others and also to win the heart of Portia. Besides he does not give any proof of his unusual intelligence in any part of the play that we can be sure of his right choice of the casket. The first suitor before making his choice asks Portia not to dislike him because of his black complexion. He also tells that he has won many battles and praises his own blood which he considers redder and healthier than that of any white man. Then he examines the motto which is inscribed on each casket. He tries to understand the implications of all inscriptions. He rejects the lead casket because it offers only a threat, and because a golden mind must not degrade itself by showing preference for something ugly and worthless which demands that the chooser should hazard all for its sake. He then rejects the silver casket on the ground that although he deserves much by virtue of his birth, his fortunes, his graces and his qualities of breeding, yet his deserving might not extend so far as the lady. Then he looks at the gold casket and says that the whole world desires Portia and that suitors come from all the four corners of the earth to kiss the shrine. Having thus commented on the caskets, the Prince of Morocco asks himself which of the three caskets is likely to contain Portia’s heavenly picture. And his answer is “Never so rich a gem was set in worse than gold.” And so he puts his hand on the gold casket which on being opened, is found to contain a human skull holding written message to the effect that everything which glitters is not gold. Portia’s father, had at the time of death, conceived an unusual kind of device for the choice of a husband for his daughter. He had laid down in his will, a condition that Portia would only marry a man who would choose, from amongst three caskets. The caskets are made of three metals-gold, silver and lead. Certain mottos are inscribed on each of the caskets. One of these caskets holds the portrait of Portia. It is laid down in the will of Portia’s deceased father that whatever happens to choose the casket in which Portia’s portrait is concealed will win Portia for his bride. On the very face of such a will it is evident that the choice of the caskets we feel that there must be some hidden motive behind the lottery. Many of the readers of the modern world would say that this choice of the caskets reflect nothing but the ignorance and superstition of the father of Portia who believed in blind fate particularly in human marriage. Shakespeare says in the present play that hanging and marriage go by destiny; and therefore, if we take the caskets from the Elizabethan stand point, it should be no better than a gamble of chance in the choice of one’s marriage. But of, then what is the idea behind the motto inscribed on each of the caskets? On the gold casket it is written ‘who chooseth me shall gain what many men desire’. On the silver casket it is written, ‘who chooseth me shall get as much as he deserves.’ In the leaden casket it is written, ‘who chooseth me must give and hazard all he hath.’ Let us try to interpret the inscriptions on the caskets and out of they have got any social significance. The inscription on the gold casket means that most people are attracted by gold or wealth but we know what Goldsmith has said where wealth accumulates men decay ; not only that but when people become wealthy they become corrupt with many vices. So to be attracted by gold or wealth means invited ruin. The significance of the motto on the silver casket is that everybody should get what he deserves.; but the question is how one can judge how much one deserves because everybody has got in him some amount of vanity or self-conceit, and therefore everybody is likely to overrate himself, and naturally everybody thinks that he deserves everything. So, it is risky on one’s part to judge what one really deserves. The motto on the leaden casket says that whoever will risk his all will get the thing for which he will risk his all, which means, in other words, no gain without risk or unless one works hard and puts in his best energy one cannot expect to succeed in anything.
“Therefore I tell you, do not worry about your life, what you will eat or drink; or about your body, what you will wear. Is not life more than food, and the body more than clothes? Look at the birds of the air; they do not sow or reap or store away in barns, and yet your heavenly Father feeds them. Are you not much more valuable than they? Can any one of you by worrying add a single hour to your life?” Do Not Worry: Matthew 6 New International Version (NIV)
Now the question is how one can choose the right casket or get the desired thing by interpreting the inscriptions on the caskets in the manner we have interpreted them. Of course, those who will run after the glittering things in the world will always be cheated because all that glitters is not gold. Then again, if one goes to judge one’s own merits and tries to secure a thing according to one’s own merits, one will always be deceived because everybody in the world is more or less vain and naturally everybody will misjudge himself and thus will not be able to get what he really deserves. But if, one goes to apply all his energy to a thing without considering the outward appearances or without considering what one deserves, one is very likely to be rewarded with success. That is how we can say that the inscriptions on the caskets will truly bring out the character of a man and will test him whether he is really fit for getting anything. Bassanio correctly interprets the inscriptions on the caskets, and that is why he succeeds in choosing the right casket. His manner of interpretation of the inscriptions serves as the test of his character, and proves that Bassanio is not a man to be tempted by the glitter of things nor is he a man to be misled by his vanity to overrate himself but that he is a man, who believes in putting in all his energy in order to win something whatever may be his aim, as in the present case, his sole aim is to win Portia. The melancholy of Antonio in The Merchant of Venice is not constitutional at all; for he himself tells us that on account of his melancholy due to this or that cause. He is a rich man; he owns ships; he is engaged in trading with distant countries; he has loving friends around him. He himself cannot say why he is melancholy: ‘how I caught it, found it, or came by it, I am to learn’, says he. It is suggested that he is melancholy because his ships have sailed to distant countries and he is thinking of the danger to which they are exposed, it is also suggested that he is in a melancholy frame of mind because he is in love. None of these appears to be the real cause of his melancholy. He definitely says, ‘my merchandise makes me not sad.’ He is also positive that he is not in love; and it is difficult to believe, plainly speaking, that a man of his nature and temper would indulge in the sentiments of love in such a way as would make him melancholy. Gratiano thinks that he is melancholy because he has ‘too much respect upon the world’; but this also does not seem to be the cause of the melancholy. The only explanation of the matter would then seem to be- he is constitutionally melancholy. This also appears to be far from truth. But in, certain things which Antonio does in the play, certain sentiments which he expresses them point to something which may be looked upon as the probable cause of melancholy. Strictly speaking, ‘The Merchant of Venice’ is a play without a hero. As we often have a novel without a hero, so we may say that here we have a play without a hero. Leaving Shylock aside, the central figure of the play is undoubtedly Portia. Bassanio and Antonio are poor and weak figures as compared to her; and so we may say with sufficient reason that here we have a play with a heroine but no hero. If in fact, the strongest, most forceful and most dominiating character in the play were to be deemed its hero, that hero would much rather be Shylock than Antonio. Whenever Shylock appears in the play, he towers over the other characters and dwarfs them all by the power and vehemence of his passion; and even in the Trial Scene which ends in Shylock’s utter defeat and discomfiture, it is he, next to Portia, who holds our attention from beginning to end. And yet Shylock is not the hero of the play. It might be a clever paradox to regard him as such; but we may be quiet sure that Shakespeare meant him to be the villain rather than the hero. These difficulties are of a threefold nature: the initial difficulty is to imagine that any character should be bad enough to cut off a pound of flesh from the body of a living man, secondly granting that a man may be cruel enough to insert such a condition in his bond, could it be seriously sought to be enforced in any court of law? Lastly, granting that a court of law should think of enforcing Shylock’s bond would Portia’s quibble, namely that the bond allowed the Jew only a pound of flesh and no blood, furnish anyway out of the difficulty. Of these, the first two difficulties do not seem to be very serious. If Shylock was really a monster of villainy and cruelty, there would be nothing to prevent him from seeking to encompass sanctioned by law. As for the improbability that no law would possibly sanction the cutting of a pound of flesh as repayment of a debt or liability, this also does not seem to be very serious. Nay, this very repayment was provided in the ancient Roman law of the Twelve Tables; and the Roman law went further still in as much as it gave their creditor immunity against the point raised by Portia. The third difficulty is more serious and we may concede at once that here Shakespeare is upon very unsafe ground. The law everywhere provides that where a man is permitted to do a thing he is permitted to take every other step incidental to the doing of the thing. Therefore once it is granted that Shylock is permitted by law to cut off a pound of Antonio’s flesh., it must be granted also that he was permitted to shed as much of Antonio’s blood as might be necessary for the cutting of the flesh.
PORTIA [Aside] How all the other passions fleet to air, As doubtful thoughts, and rash-embraced despair, And shuddering fear, and green-eyed jealousy! O love, Be moderate; allay thy ecstasy, In measure rein thy joy; scant this excess. I feel too much thy blessing: make it less, For fear I surfeit.
Bassanio, the third suitor reads through the inscription on the gold casket and says the world is always deceived with ornament or outward shows. In the sphere of law, even the most untruthful can be made to appear genuine by a persuasive tongue. In the sphere of religion even the greatest evil can be made to appeal something proper and desirable with the support of some plausible case from a scripture, hiding the evil with a decorative veil over it. A coward acquires the look of a warrior by growing a beard on his chin like Hercules and by wearing a frown on his face like Mars (the God of War). Arguing thus, Bassanio rejects the gold casket. He also rejects the silver casket, his reason in this case being that silver is only a “common drudge between man and mass.” The lead casket seems to Bassanio to have a greater appeal. The very paleness of this casket, which threatens rather than promises anything, moves him more than any kind of eloquence could move him. And so he chooses the lead casket which on being opened, is found to contain Portia’s picture. Thus Bassanio succeeds in the test which had been laid down by Portia’s father for the choice of a husband for her. MOROCCO Mislike me not for my complexion, The shadow'd livery of the burnish'd sun, To whom I am a neighbour and near bred.
There can be no denying the fact that Antonio loves Bassanio beyond all measure. Salerio describes how tears came into the eyes of Antonio when he wrung the hand of Bassanio at the time of his departure to Belmont; and Solanio remarks. ‘I think he only loves the world for him.’ He borrows money from his enemy Shylock at a risk to his life and gives it to Bassanio. He could have told Bassanio that he had no cash at the time; but he does not do so. In the letter which Antonio sends to Bassanio at Belmont, he say, ‘all debts are cleared between you and I if I might but see you at my death.’ All this goes’ to show that Antonio loved Bassanio beyond all measure; he loved him more than he loved his life. This fact we have to remember carefully. Similarly also, in the letter which Antonio writes to Bassanio asking him to see him (Antonio) before he dies. He says ‘if your love do not persuade you to come, let not my letter.’ We may again ask ourselves the question, why does Antonio adjure Bassanio’s to come in the name of love? The only probable reply is- Antonio thinks Bassanio will now find another object of love- Portia- so his love for himself (Antonio) will diminish. Again, Bassanio is starting on his journey to Belmont. Tears should come, really speaking, into the eyes of Bassanio because it is he who is starting on an adventure, the result of which is in the womb of an unknown future; but it is Antonio whose eyes are filled with tears; and we may again ask ourselves –why is this so? “To bait fish withal”- this speech of Shylock occurs in the first scene if the third Act. The antecedents of this speech should be noted. First Shylock’s daughter has run away with a Christian, and she has taken with her Shylock’s money and jewels. Shylock thus suffers loss of both money and jewels and humiliation. His daughter has insulted the Hebrew race by running away with a Christian. Then Shylock hears that Antonio’s ships have been lost at sea, and that Antonio is a “broke”. At this stage Salanio and Salerio meet him in a street of Venice, and start badgering him with the report of Antonio’s losses. Shylock threatens to exact the bond. Salerio asks what good a pound of human flesh would be to him. It is on this that follows Shylock’s speech, a noble protest against the inhumanity of the treatment, accorded to the Jewish race through the ages. This is the only probable reason which can satisfactorily explain the melancholy of Antonio. Portia first acknowledges the validity of Shylock’s claim on the strength of the bond, and then Antonio admits that he had signed the bond. Now Portia says “Then must the Jew be merciful”. It ‘must’ that jars on Shylock’s ears. Shylock replies, “On what compulsion must I? tell me that.” Then follows Portia’s speech on mercy. In Act I, Scene (i) Bassanio meets Antonio. After the formalities of paying compliments are over, friends go away leaving Bassanio and Antonio together. It is Antonio who eagerly opens the conversation by asking Bassanio about the lady in Belmont. Really speaking it is Bassanio who should be eager to give Antonio information about her,-because: it is he who wants to go there and because it is he who wants to borrow money from Antonio. But for, it is the other way around- Antonio is eager to get information on the point; and we may ask ourselves-why is this so? Shylock retorts that the pound of Antonio’s flesh will satisfy his revenge. Then he lists the numerous wrongs that he has suffered at the hands of Antonio. Antonio’s enmity has caused him loss in business and money, alienation of friends, etc. he has been subjected to these losses and indignities because he is a Jew. But of, the Jew is also a human being. He has feelings and sensations like a Christian. If a Christian is wronged, he retaliates and the same may apply to a Jew. This speech, which is provoked by the age-long persecution and oppression to which the Jews have been subjected-for here Shylock voices the grievances of his own nation-is a partial justification for Shylock’s unbending severity in the Trial Scene. It has a double dramatic significance- It calls forth our sympathy for Shylock as a member of the persecuted race (and has led modern critics to make a sympathetic interpretation of his character). Secondly, it prepares us for the stubborn ferocity of the Jew in insisting on his claim for a pound of flesh. The way in which Act I, Scene (i) Antonio asks Bassanio to speak about the lady at Belmont shows that some time earlier to speak about the lady at Belmont shows that sometime earlier Bassanio had already spoken to Antonio about her. The idea that Bassanio is now likely to find another object of love and that, therefore, his love for himself (Antonio) would diminish, makes Antonio melancholy. The title of the play suggests, no doubt, that Antonio is the hero, or it is Antonio who is in fact The Merchant of Venice. He is referred to again as the ‘Royal Merchant the good Antonio”. In the Trial Scene also, Portia pointedly asks-“Which is the merchant? And which the Jew?” but of, even then the merchant cannot be the hero, for Antonio plays a minor and subordinate part in the drama. He is not the chief dramatic person; he, of course, forms a centre round which other characters are grouped; Bassanio, his friend; Shylock, his enemy; Portia, his saviour. His part is rather passive than an active one; he is to be an object of contention and a prize; much is to be done against him and on his behalf but so much is not to be done by him; and therefore, although his character is very firmly conceived and clearly indicated, his part is subdued and kept low lest it might interfere with the exhibition of the two chief forces of the play- the cruel masculine force of Shylock, which holds the merchant in its relentless grip and the feminine force of Portia, which is as bright as the sunlight and as beneficent. Therefore, Antonio is by no means the hero of the play. Mercy flows spontaneously. It compared to the gentle rain that drops from heaven. It is a double blessing. It blesses him that gives him and that receives. It is most effective in those who wield the greatest power. It is a better attribute for a king than power, which is symbolized by the crown. The latter can inspire awe and obedience. But for, mercy is superior to it. It is throned in the hearts of kings. It has no outward symbols like earthly powers. Mercy is a quality of God. Earthly power comes nearer to Godly power when it is tempered by mercy. After dilating on the quality of mercy, Portia appeals to Shylock to moderate his claim for justice. She argues that if god were to deal with us in terms of justice, then there could be no salvation for us, that we pray to God for mercy and we cannot expect it unless we ourselves show mercy to our fellow creatures. PORTIA ..but now I was the lord Of this fair mansion, master of my servants, Queen o'er myself: and even now, but now, This house, these servants and this same myself Are yours, my lord: I give them with this ring; As regards the dramatic appropriateness of the speech it may be pointed out that it is double-edged. Dealing as Shakespeare does with the two-fold conception of Shylock’s character, he may have intended Portia’s speech to have a double application. It is an appeal to the Christians- so striking as it comes from a Christian- who have so long persecuted and hunted to death the Jews. It is also an appeal to the Jew to mitigate his plea of justice. Sir Arthur Quiller ouch says, “It is all very well for Portia to strike an attitude and tell the court and the world that.. “,but those high professing words are words and no more to us, who find that, when it comes to her turn and the court’s turn , Shylock gets but the ‘mercy’ of being allowed- to pay half his estate ion fine, secondly to settle the other half on, the gentleman who lately stole his daughter and thirdly to turn Christian. Scarcely inferior in its kind is the night scene of Lorenzo and Jessica. Bathed as it in love, moonlight touches the sweet harmony, and soul –lifting discourse followed by the grave moral reflections of Portia, as she approaches her home and sees its light, and hears its music. The bringing in of this passage of ravishingly lyrical sweetness, so replete with the most soothing and tranquillising effect, close upon the intense dramatic excitement of the trial scene , is such a transition as we shall hardly meet with but in Shakespeare, and aptly shows his unequalled mastery of the mind’s capacities of delight. The affair of the rings, with the harmless perplexities growing out of it, is a well managed devoice for letting the mind down from the tragic height, where on it lately stood, to the merry conclusion which the play requires.
“Shylock is a terrible old man. But he is the inevitable product of centuries of racial persecutions. SHAKESPEARE IS NEITHER FOR NOR AGAINST SHYLOCK. SHAKESPEARE NEVER TAKES SIDES. YET, SURELY IF HE WERE ALIVE TODAY he would see in mercy, mercy in widest sense, which embraces understanding and forgiveness, the only possible solution of our racial hatreds and enmities.
But of, the exit of Shylock is not the end of the play. The cloud which had been gathering since the opening scene and looked so black for Antonio, instead of breaking, passes over, leaving him unharmed and even the villain himself with only a light punishment. And so the tension is relaxed for the audience. The trial is followed by an amusing interview between the disguised women and their lovers, together with the surrender of the rings, which promises further fun to come.” – John Dover Wilson, Exit of Shylock. The Lorenzo- Jessica love affair is romantic in its essence. Jessica is a Jew while Lorenzo is a Christian. It is only romantic love which disregards religious distinctions and boundaries. But of, the matter does not end there. Knowing that her father would feel horrified at her having fallen in love with a Christian young man, Jessica runs away from home to marry Lorenzo. This is certainly a great adventure on a girl’s part- she has risked and hazarded all she hath. Fortunately Lorenzo proves to be a true lover who recognizes her excellent qualities and who, therefore, forms a resolve to remain always devoted to her. This is wholly romantic love. One aspect of this romantic love is that the girl in the case has acted in a manner which would shock her father and drive him almost mad with grief and anger. But of, the truly romantic quality of this love-affair comes out in that moonlight scene in which they both speak alternately about some of the famous love-affair comes out in that moonlight scene in which they both speak alternately about some of the famous love affairs of ancient mythology. This kind of inter-racial love-affair has always been a dangerous venture and on occasions, even fatal. The element of danger makes such a love-affair romantic; and the element of passion in it makes it still more romantic. The elopement of Jessica with Lorenzo is therefore a highly romantic episode in this play. The marked procession led by a torchbearer is a picturesque spectacle which adds to the romantic aspect of the elopement. The poetic element in the dialogue in the moonlight scene heightens its romantic quality. Lorenzo’s description of the enchanting effect of music on human beings and on animals has its own share in adding to the romantic effect. Lorenzo speaks about earthly music and also about the unearthly music, the music which is audible only to the angels and not to the human beings. Bassanio, note this meaning; he probably thinks that this particular song is given to him at this particular moment so that he may pay attention to the meaning and be guided by it; and he allows himself to be guided by the song. The opening sentence “So may the outward shows be least themselves” bears convert relation to ‘it is engendered in the eyes, with gazing fed’ for the suggested external appearances may be deceptive. The sentence with which Bassanio opens his train of thoughts shows that he has understood the implication of the song. The significance of the song lies in that it gives a hidden but unmistakable direction to Bassanio in the matter of the selection of the casket. GRATIANO Nerissa, cheer yon stranger; bid her welcome. Your hand, Salerio: what's the news from Venice? How doth that royal merchant, good Antonio?
Humour, good sense and fancy are all present in The Merchant of Venice. There are different types of humour in the play. First, we may take the tomfoolery of Launcelot Gobbo with his old ‘sand blind’ father. The joke will seem a little heartless to a modern audience. But of, it must have tickled the ears of groundlings in Shakespeare’s day. There is no harm in Launcelot’s showing off a bit of classical learning to his old father, only to bemuse the old dear fellow. Then he kneels down with the back of his head to his father and the poor old man gropes about it blindly. Then there is the exquisite wit of Portia, so finely expressed in her descriptions of the suitors. We may take her description of Falconbridge, the young baron of England. It is rather expressed in the harmony, balanced proportion which is a marked characteristic of Shakespearian comedy. Even if Shylock appears a monster of cruelty in his demand for the pound of flesh- there is excuse for it in the ruthless persecutions of Jews, in the universal contempt and obloquy with which they were treated- Shakespeare keeps him human. He has a tender memory of his wife. There is also a human touch in his passionate protest against injustice and oppression that had been the lot of Jews throughout the ages. Launcelot is most provoking, when Lorenzo tries to manage him at Belmont. How he plays tricks with words? He is rightly described by Lorenzo as a ‘wit-snapper’, who would, ‘for a tricky word, defy the matter’.
“The Merchant of Venice’ is justly distinguished among Shakespeare’s dramas, not only for the excellent quality of language, but also for the beauty of particular scenes and passages. For descriptive power, the opening scene of Antonio and his friends is not easily matched and can hardly fail to live in the memory of anyone having an eye for such things. Equally fine in its way is the scene of Shylock and Tubal, where the latter is so torn with the struggle of conflicting passions; his heart new sinking with grief at the account of his fugitive daughter’s expenses now leaping with malignant joy at the report of Antonio’s losses. The Trial Scene with its tugging changes of passion and its hush of terrible expectation-now rising with the Jew’s sharp, spiteful snaps of malice, now made musical with Portia’s strain of eloquence, now holy with Antonio’s tender breathing of friendship and dashed from time to time with Gratiano’s fierce jets of wrath and fiercer jets of mirth is hardly surpassed in tragic power anywhere, and as it forms the catastrophe proper, so it concentrates the interest of the whole play.
“Shakespeare has no heroes; he has only heroines”, this dictum does not apply to tragedies, though it may apply partly to his comedies. For example, in Hamlet or Othello, Hamlet or Othello is the central figure. But of, in a comedy like As you Like It, here Rosalind has been more fully portrayed and individualized than Orlando and we may say that Rosalind is the heroine, and As you Like It has no hero. Similarly in The Merchant of Venice we are no doubt interested in the fortunes and fate of Antonio and evidently Shakespeare also means Antonio to be the hero, but Portia is the outstanding figure. In fact in The Merchant of Venice Portia and Shylock are the two outstanding figures. Antonio is a passive character. He has a shade of melancholy which, coupled with the misfortunes that befall him (soon to be lifted), makes him pathetically attractive. But of, apart from his selfless friendship for Bassanio, no other trait in his character is developed. The characters of Portia and Shylock are more fully portrayed. Now as Portia, with her wit, ingenuity, masterly exposition of legal subtleties, brings the play to a happy ending and as Portia is responsible for the denouement, she may be said to be the heroine of the play. The dictum, therefore, has a limited application. It is not true of all the plays of Shakespeare. The point is that in comedies, Shakespeare lavishes all his care and love on the portraiture of female characters. In his comedies, therefore, the female characters with a dash of romance, and the trick of disguise (which was necessitated by boy actors playing the female parts) usually eclipse the male characters. This implies that what is beautiful in external appearance attracts the eyes; to put it the other way round, the eyes become attracted towards external beauty only; this external beauty may not denote intrinsic worth; it is hence risky to be guided by the beauty of external appearance. Then again Portia herself embodies good sense, sobriety and, moderation. She seems to be quite level-headed in all her actions. If the instructions of her father in the matter of choosing her husband gall her spirit, she is sensible enough not to rebel, but to make the best of a bad job. When the news of Antonio’s disaster arrives at Belmont, it is Portia who decides at once what is to be done, and what part in it she should have to take. Then there is rather the coarse, unfeeling humour of Gratiano in the trial scene. One form of it is the pun. The elopement incident, this incident is romantic. The running away of young lovers is always romantic; but the running away of Jessica with Lorenzo is still more romantic; because the girl is a Jew and her lover is a Christian; and though they belong to different races and different religions, they fall in love with each other; and knowing that they will not be allowed to marry each other, they decide to run away together. This incident is still more romantic on account of the fact that the girl disguises herself as a boy and it is in this disguise that she runs away with her lover; and this disguise of a boy she puts on when plays the role of a torch-bearer in masque. The second part gives the reply- it is bred at the eyes, it depends on the eyes. There is no doubt that this song assists Bassanio in making his selection. He listens to the song carefully; he attends to its meaning; and he notes the fact that superficial love (‘fancy’) is neither an emotional matter depending on the heart nor an intellectual matter depending on the head; it is a matter which depends on the eyes; and the more do eyes gaze at a thing, the more does a man become attracted towards the thing, until a time comes when the attraction or fancy disappears. In the earlier part of this casket scene Portia who loves Bassanio very -greatly says’ I could teach you how to choose right, but I am then forsworn’; She finds out a way to ‘teach’ Bassanio. If Bassanio is a shrewd person and if he is really inspired by the sincere promptings of his heart for her, to make the right selection. Bassanio takes up the hint; thinks in the direction which is suggested; and finally makes a right selection of the casket. He is guided by the head as much as by the heart. The song is significant because it gives direction to Bassanio which he is shrewd and sincere enough to accept. Hudson remarks “Critics have too of an entertained themselves with speculation as to the poet’s specific moral purpose in this play or that. They forget that a moral lesson is quite beside the purpose of Art. Nevertheless as work of art must needs to be moral… As to the moral temper of ‘The Merchant of Venice’ critics have differed widely, some regarding the play as teaching the most comprehensive humanity, others as caressing the narrowest bigotries of the age. This difference may be fairly taken as an argument of the poet’s condour and evenhandedness. A special pleader is not apt to leave the hearers in doubt on which side of question he stands.” The reply which is suggested is this: it is not a matter of the heart (because it is not a deep seated emotion); nor is it an intellectual matter (because the head has nothing to do with emotions and affections). It is a matter which depends on the eyes; and the more a person makes use of his eyes and the more a man gazes at a thing, the more does his’ fancy’ (that is attraction or shallow love) increases. Thus fancy is created by the eyes; and sometime later, when the attraction becomes cooled, ‘fancy’ disappears, because the eyes do not become attracted towards a thing or person. Thus the first part asks the question- Where is fancy bred? Another interpretation might be Measure for Measure seeing that the Jew was caught and crusted in his own trap. LORENZO I thank your honour. For my part, my lord, My purpose was not to have seen you here; But meeting with Salerio by the way, He did entreat me, past all saying nay, To come with him along.
The question here does not imply that there is any conscious motive, design or intention which a poet has in mind in writing a play. One may be perfectly sure that Shakespeare as a suspense imaginative artist does not work with a conscious motive or design in view. But of, the word ‘purport’ or purpose here means the theory or underlying significance which, whether the poet was conscious of it or not will best help to reconcile all the discordant elements of the drama. Considering the question from this point of view, many different solutions have been regarded in reply. Verity says that the play is ‘a plea for toleration’ not for sympathizing with Shylock, but for holding the mirror up to truth and showing the results of intolerance; what persecution does; how it debases national character.
“Tell me, where is fancy bred”, is sung in the second scene of the Third Act when Bassanio makes his selection. The song is in two parts. In the first part which consist of the first four lines, a question is asked and a reply is expected. The question is- Is ‘fancy’ created in the heart, or is it created in the head? The word ‘fancy’ in Elizabethan English means ‘merely attraction’, ‘love of a very superficial type’; it does not represent the deep-seated emotion which is denoted by the word ‘Love’; the heart is the seat of the emotions and the passions; the head is the seat of the intellect. The question which is asked in the first part of the song amounts to this: Is superficial love seated in the heart or is it created in the mind? Is attraction a matter of the deep-seated emotion such as belong to the heart or is it an intellectual matter? The hearer is asked to give some reply.
Then when they meet Bassanio with what verbal pranks does Launcelot play frequently interrupting his father whom he has put forward to speak to him? Fancy, is embodied in the lyric of Lorenzo and Jessica in the fifth act. The most magnificent passages poetry ever penned by Shakespeare, occur in the fifth act. It is said that the play brings forth a conception of friendship and depicts the tastes and responsibilities that were compatible with mercantile pursuits. Ulrici says that the purpose of the play is to illustrate the doctrine – ‘the stricter the law, the greater the injustice’. The law-suit of Shylock, the arbitrary will of Portia’s father, the intricacy of right and wrong in the conduct of Jessica in Launcelot’s reflections, and in the quarrel of the lovers in the last act, concur with this point of view. We are thus led to understand the stress which Portia lays upon mercy; not severe right, but tempered equity alone can hold the society to together. But on, when we glance at the external structure of the play the essential characters do not all stand in relation to this idea Bassanio has nothing to do with this idea. Shylock is portrayed as a typical Jew in the minutest details. His dress, his language, his mental outlook are all completely Hebraized. He wears a Gaberdine as a Jew, and lives in a sort of isolation to which he is condemned by his dress, by his habit of life, and by his business (money-lending), etc. but of, he is most marked out as a Jew by his mental outlook, by his ways of thinking and by the peculiarity of his language. As a member of the persecuted race he broods over wrongs and insults which his nation suffers from and has always suffered. The speech may be taken as an example. The speech is significant. If there is an element of exaggeration as is natural in such a case, it throws a sufficient light on the relations between the Jews and Christians in those days. The Jews were a hated and persecuted race. Cut off as they were from all honourable profession, they were driven to live by usury (which was forbidden to the Christans) and the peculiar circumstances in which they had to live, possessed them with inferiority in complex. Now it may be noted how in Shylock are mirrored all his racial characteristics. He lives apart from his Christian neighbours. It is a self-centered life, a life lived in a world of his own. The Old Testament which is his Scripture, supplies him with illustrations, with imagery, with oaths, any colour, his turns of speech and even mode of thinking. His defence of usury is a typical instance. In the speech it may be noted how Shylock holds himself as the member of an exclusive race. Shylock is obsessed with the tradition, mental outlook and the destiny of his own nation. Here is the strongest proof of this. When Tubal tells him that he has not been able to get hold of his daughter who has run away with a Christian, having well furnished herself with his money and jewels, Shylock says about. From the picture of Shylock, drawn in the play, there is no doubt that love of money is his besetting sin. But at, it is aggravated by the circumstances e.g., wrongs and insults which he suffers at the hands of the Christian merchant, Antonio. To these is added the fresh humiliation to which he is subjected by his daughter’s elopement with a Christian. These extenuating circumstances are dwelt on in the play. It means, therefore, that there is a touch of sympathy and tolerance in the portraiture of Shylock. The wrongs and insults to which he, as a Jew, is subjected from a Christian , the persecution of his race over which he cannot help brooding (of which there are hints in the play), the fresh humiliation, added by his daughter’s elopement with a Christian (which is an outrage to her father’s feelings and to his nation’s honour) are circumstances (since they are emphasized in the play) which are meant to excuse, if they cannot justify, his later cruelty towards Antonio. The Fool thus was intended to keep the audience in a merry frame of mind and to offer interpretative criticism of some part of dramatic action or to reveal its hidden moral significance. Shakespeare’s plays usually contain a character who is a professional Fool or Clown. We have a Fool, for example in ‘King Lear’ and in ‘As you Like It’ (Touchstone) sometimes however the dramatist introduces a character who is not a regular fool and who, yet behaves in foolish manner; such a man plays the part which the Fool is expected to play. The chief function of the Fool is to contribute to the humorous element in the play; he enlivens the atmosphere and keeps the audience in good humour. This he does in several ways: The Fool contributes to the humorous element by exchanging witty remarks with others; sometimes these remarks, when judged by modern standard, are in low taste; but the Elizabethan audience liked such remarks. Secondly, he also contributes to the element of fun by his tricks and antics. Thirdly, sometimes, more or less unconsciously, the Fool utters profound truths. The Merchant of Venice does not contain any Fool; but we have a character in the play who plays the role of a Fool. That character is Launcelot, the servant of Shylock. He leaves Shylock and takes service with Bassanio. The ruling trait in his character is the desire to show himself as possessing that which he does not possess. The pretensions make him comic, and it is on account of these pretensions that he becomes a source of laughter in the play. NERISSA My lord and lady, it is now our time, That have stood by and seen our wishes prosper, To cry, good joy: good joy, my lord and lady!
A Romantic Comedy deals with the emotion of love; for, there is nothing more romantic than love. It deals with the lighter side of life; and though clouds may gather in the sky for a short time, they disperse and leave the sky clear. It is not bound by classical laws, and hence it allows the introduction of chance or accident. Its atmosphere is light and songs, dance and music are introduced freely. Romantic elements such as elopement, romance, courtship are indispensable parts of a Romantic Comedy. Launcelot pretends to possess a learning which he does not have. He wants to tell his father that Launcelot is dead. He refers to destinies and fates and ‘such branches of learning’etc. He pretends that he can read the palm of his hand. He tries to use polysyllabic words, but in a wrong manner. He wants to ‘try confusions’ with his father who is ‘true begotten’; he makes a suit ‘impertinent to’ himself. Lorenzo rightly describes him as ‘a fool’ who -hath planted in his memory an army of good words- which he uses wrongly. Launcelot thus pretends that he is learned and uses words which are generally voluminous in sound and learned in appearance; but he uses them wrongly. His pretending that he is learned, though he is not, leads him to wrong use of words; thus he makes himself ridiculous; and becomes a source of laughter. Launcelot is merely a domestic servant in the household of Shylock and still he pretends to possess the rank of a gentleman and desires to be addressed as ‘Master’. When Launcelot Gobbo meets him and asks him -Can you tell me whether one Launcelot dwells with him or no?- Launcelot asks,- Talk you of young Master Launcelot?- The father does not like the use of the word ‘master’ because his son is after all a domestic servant in the house of Shylock; so the father says,-no master, sir, but a poor man’s son- Launcelot however insists on being considered ‘master’; he repeats the word ‘master’ and says ,- we will talk of young master Launcelot- Thus we see that he pretends to have the rank of a gentleman, though he is merely a domestic servant. This pretension leads him into an inconsistency of action; and it is this inconsistency which makes him ridiculous and a source of laughter. Shakespeare is a great portrayer of character and The Merchant of Venice fully illustrates this aspect of his genius. Shylock and Portia are among the greatest creations of Shakespeare. Shylock has been portrayed in his multifarious relations and has been made to live before us. We come to know him as a Jew, as a money-lender. As a father and as an employer. Portia is living character with all the qualities of head and heart. She is young, beautiful, witty, vibrant, brimming with energy and zest, dynamic, highly intelligent and ingenious, and yet very modest and unassuming. The other characters too are realistically portrayed. Launcelot pretends to be logical and rational when he is illogical. He insists on his father’s using the word –master-; and he thinks that he has proved his case; so he remarks-ergo, Master Launcelot- Really speaking, he has proved nothing. He tries similarly, to prove that Jessica is damned either on account of her father or on account of her mother Act III, Scene V. this pretension leads him into inconsistencies which make him ridiculous and a source of laughter. The courageous vanity and self-conceit with which he carries all matters through show him in ridiculous aspect. There is no Fool of the professional type in The Merchant of Venice; but Launcelot plays that role and becomes a source of laughter, because he is ridiculous in his speech and reasoning, in his use of words and in his actions. One of the most important features of this play is the close interweaving of the main plot and sub-plots by the dramatist. The ‘Bond Story’ is the main plot which is knittely interwoven with the sub-plots like the Casket Story; the Lorenzo-Jessica love affairs; and the Rings story. These are all different strands in the play; but Shakespeare has shown a consummate skill in interweaving them so as to produce a coherent and harmonious pattern. The Bond Story and the Casket Story are inter-dependent because the heroine of the Casket Story later becomes the judge in the Bond Story. Through the Lorenzo-Jessica and the Ring stories are not absolutely integral to the main plot, yet the inter-connection here is close enough. It is the fact of the elopement which enrages Shylock against the Christians and incites him to decide to demand the pound of Antonio’s flesh. ; if it should become forfeit. And if this forfeiture should materialize, we cannot conceive of the possibility of Portia’s and Bassanio’s ever being happy in their married life., as they were to be always haunted with the thought that it was at the price of Antonio’s precious life that they had been able , in the first instance, to come together. Thus, we see how the Portia-Bassanio love affairs, the Bond story and Lorenzo-Jessica episode are inter-related. Each incident affects the course and action of the other incidents. Hence we can say that the main plot as well as the various sub-plots are intricately interwoven by Shakespeare. The word “Merchant” in the title of this play evidently refers to Antonio. When Portia appears in a Venetian court to act as the judge in Shylock’s case against Antonio, she asks: _Which is the merchant here and which the Jew?-From this question it is clear that the word “Merchant” is being used for Antonio, while Shylock is being described as the Jew. Apart from this obvious indication, nowhere in the play is Shylock referred to as a merchant. By profession, Shylock is a money-lender and by religion, a Jew. Therefore, we can say that Antonio is the merchant of Venice and that the play has been named after him. Shakespeare named his tragedies after the heroes of the respective plays, but in the present case he has named a romantic comedy after the leading character who is not mentioned in the title by his name but is referred to by his profession. Antonio is certainly the hero of the play which has been named after him. There is no doubt that Antonio is the hero of the Bond Story which constitutes the main plot of the play. Though Shylock figures even more prominently in the Bond Story than Antonio, he is a villain and by no stretch of imagination, he can be called a hero. No doubt, Antonio is a passive character; but without him the Bond Story would loose its significance. He is certainly the hero; and so the play has been rightly called The Merchant of Venice. In The Merchant of Venice, the romantic elements are the love of Portia and Bassanio, the love of Jessica and Lorenzo, and the friendship of Antonio and Bassanio. The moon light scene in the concluding Act of the play where Lorenzo and Jessica recall some of the famous love-affairs of legend and mythology and where Lorenzo describes the enchantment of music, heavenly as well as earthly music. It may also be said that the theme of the play was to depict the relation of man to property. The ‘g’-od of the world the image of show, the symbol of all external things, is money. To examine the relation of man to property or to money is to place his intrinsic value on the finest scale and to separate that which belongs to the unessential, to outward shows, from that which in its inward nature relates to a higher destiny. Some, therefore, think that the thought of the play is- that it is not outward show and appearance, but genuine worth that tells. The play is also romantic because it violates the three classical unities. The unity of time is violated because more than three months are represented on the stage; while the performance of the play takes about two hours only. It violates the unity of action because the action is complex and contains several threads-the Bassanio thread, the Gratiano thread, the Lorenzo thread etc. It violates the unity of place because the scenes are shifted from one place to another, frequently. The introduction of disguised scenes where Jessica elopes in the dress of a boy, and Portia goes to the Duke’s court disguised as a lawyer, also contributes to the romantic elements of the play. The elopement of Jessica and Lorenzo adds to the romantic atmosphere in the play. Chance plays a crucial role in a romantic comedy and The Merchant of Venice is no exception to it. The ships of Antonio are lost by chance and they arrive in safely also by chance. Again, it is by a strange accident that Portia gets the letter showing the safe return of Antonio’s ships. Further, the ‘lottery of caskets’ is a romantic matter and it adds to the romantic atmosphere of the play. Among the comic elements in this play are the fooling and buffoonery of Launcelot Gobbo, the fertile and prolific wit of Portia, the witty and glib talk of Gratiano and mirth and laughter which result from Portia’s and Nerissa’s trick in having obtained their rings from their respective husbands at the end of the trial scene. Like a typical comedy, The Merchant of Venice ends in a happy tone. The ships of Antonio are restored and hence once again he becomes a wealthy man. The three pairs of lovers- Bassanio-Portia, Gratiano- Nerissa and Lorenzo-Jessica are happily married. The endowment of the runaway couple also adds to the comic atmosphere of the play. It is romantic because: firstly, it treats the subject of love; this subject is looked at from different view-points; it is looked at from the view-point of sex in the relations between Bassanio and Portia, Lorenzo and Jessica, and Gratiano and Nerissa; it is looked at from the view-point of friendship in the relations between Antonio and Bassanio; it is viewed from another point of view in the relations between Shylock and his wealth, and Shylock and Antonio. Thus this play deals with love in its varied aspects. Secondly, it is romantic because it violates the three classical unities. The unity of time is violated because more than three months are represented on the stage; while the performance takes about two hours only; it violates the unity of action because the action is complex and contains several thread-the Bassanio thread, the Gratiano thread, the Lorenzo thread, etc. it violates the unity of place because the scenes are shifted from one place to another frequently. Thirdly, the play is romantic because it introduces disguise scenes. Jessica elopes in the dress of a boy; and Portia goes to the Duke’s court disguised as a lawyer. Fourthly, the play is romantic because it deals with elopement. Elopement of lovers is always a romantic matter. Fifthly, the play is romantic because it allows the introduction of chance. The ships of Antonio become lost by chance; and they arrive in safely also by a ‘strange accident’ that Portia gets the letter showing the safe return of Antonio’s ships. Sixthly, the play is romantic as further it allows to contain several matters which possess a romantic nature. The ‘lottery of caskets’ is a romantic matter; the elopement is a romantic matter; the bond itself is romantic, because it is so foolish. The song is a romantic matter and so also the music. Those which are addressed to self sometimes show us the motive-springs of the action of a person. The soliloquy of Bassanio in Act III, scene II, which begins with – So may the outward shows be least themselves- is a soliloquy of this kind. It shows us that Bassanio will not be attracted by outward shows of things. This soliloquy shows the working of Bassanio’s mind at the time when he chooses his casket. Every incident and subsidiary action of The Merchant of Venice is an integral part of the central story, and has a distinct part to play in furthering the action. This point has been realized by all Shakespearian critics, and Hallam, in particular, has gone so far as to say that dramatic unity here attains complete perfection. A consideration of this perfect masterpiece, this great and finished work of dramatic art, will show the immense difference which exists between Shakespeare’s finished plays, and the scraps of story and general odds and ends which are termed his “sources”. LAUNCELOT And they have conspired together, I will not say you shall see a masque; but if you do, then it was not for nothing that my nose fell a-bleeding on Black-Monday last at six o'clock i' the morning, falling out that year on Ash-Wednesday was four year, in the afternoon.
Belmont, an idyllic place on a hill, has been chosen to provide a refreshing change from the commercial world of Venice. The Scene opens with Portia’s melancholy which reminds us of Antonio’s melancholy in Scene 1. The nobility of both Portia and Antonio corresponds well. Portia represents the picture of a ‘poor little rich girl’ whose father has devised a lottery to select her husband. ANTONIO I once did lend my body for his wealth; Which, but for him that had your husband's ring, Had quite miscarried: I dare be bound again, My soul upon the forfeit, that your lord Will never more break faith advisedly.
“England c. 1599 When Shakespeare was writing The Merchant of Venice, most people believed that the sun went round the earth. They were taught that this was a divinely ordered scheme of things, and that –in England- God had instituted a Church and ordained a Monarchy for the right government of the land and the populace. ‘The past is a foreign country; they do things differently there.”- L.P.Hartley.”-Oxford Edition: Shakespeare. The ‘local colour’ in The Merchant of Venice is completely Italian and it is accurately given. We feel that we are moving in the Italian climate under the Italian sky; and we wonder how Shakespeare is so accurate in giving the Italian colour in this play by depending only on what he had read or what he had heard. The Italian colouring which we have in the play is secured by him by having recourse to the following devices- Firstly, the names of persons are Italian; Antonio and Gratiano, Salerio and Solanio etc. are all Italian names. The name Gobbo is particularly Italian. Secondly, references to places which were well known in Italy for certain reasons give the play an Italian colouring. The reference to Belmont assists the Italian picture, because Italy contained several such country-seats like Belmont, where some rich persons resided. The references to Rialto where money- transactions took place, to Padua as the place of residence of the eminent lawyer, Dr. Bellario (Padua was the seat of a famous university) give to the play an Italian meaning. Thirdly, the reference to the gift of pigeons (which Gobbo makes to Bassanio) is particularly Italian. The reference to gondola (in which the runaway couple was seen seated) gives to the play an Italian colour. Fourthly, the reference to merchant princes, to money-lending Jews and their synagogue, the reference to the trade of Venice with other places and to its freedom etc. give to the play an Italian colouring. In sheer prodigality of output Shakespeare is unrivalled in literature. From king to clown, from lunatic and demi-devil to saint and seer, from lover to misanthrope –all are revealed with the hand of the master. Surveying this multitude, one can cry out, as Hamlet does, “What a piece of work is man!” In the narrowest sense of the term, Shakespeare took no trouble to be original. Following the custom of the time, he borrowed freely from older plays, such as King Lear, chronicles such as Holinshed’s, and tales such as The Jew, the part-origin of The Merchant of Venice. To these he is indebted chiefly for his plots; but in his more mature work the interest in the [plot becomes subordinate to the development of character, the highest achievement of the dramatist’s art. He can work his originals deftly: he can interweave plot within plot, as in A Midsummer Night’s Dream; he can solidify years of history into five acts, as in King John and Antony and Cleopatra; and as in Macbeth, he makes the dust of history glow with the spirit of his imagination.
THE LOCAL COLOUR OF ITALY.
“Venice is in fact, Elizabethan England (with its traditions). Shakespeare means to keep his audience at home no matter in whatever remote a place the play is set so that the audience can enjoy the play.”: Workbook-Reference. ORIGINAL BENGALI-POEM: (USE: EXPERT ON BENGALI LANGUAGE-TRANSLATOR FOR THE ORIGINAL BENGALI POEM.THE POEM IS ‘ITALY’.) WRITTEN BY: LEGENDARY POET, MICHAEL MADHUSUDAN DUTT. Michael Madhusudan Dutt - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia WRITTEN ON THE PORTRAIT OF “ITALY”, COMPOSED IN 1865 AT VERSAILLES, The Street where M. Dutt used to live in Versailles, France, Rue Des Chantiers Street.
“MY INITIATIVE” TO TRANSLATE THE POEM IN THE FORM OF SYNOPSIS, I TRIED. I DISMAYED REGARDING ON WORKS OF T’HE BENGALI LEGEND, NO DETALED TRANSLATION OF HIS INCREDIBLE GENIUS POEMS HAVE BEEN FOUND ON SITES.
‘’Learning the beautiful garmented liturgical thoughts of Italy, I superfluous the self-comparison of cuckoos with the extravagance writings of the different Laureates, including Francesco Petrarch, whose words are none other than the darlings of Our Mother Nature of Learning. The tiny gems of the scurfy, that annexable from mines, perhaps made The Golden Harp of the Verdi of Goddess of Learning, who therein to have the portal -bless to these different legendary laureates, eliciting the more of the different melodious words of cuckoos enhancing the mundane of the swept knowledge. Hence, my bestowment with a complete demur respect to these laureates is a complete portrait of eternity.’’ (MY-SYNOPSIS ON THE BASIS OF THE ORIGINAL BENGALI POEM, RITUPARNA RAYCHAUDHURI) PORTIA How many things by season season'd are To their right praise and true perfection! Peace, ho! the moon sleeps with Endymion And would not be awaked.
The play conveys several messages to the readers. More than anything else, the play teaches us the need of religious toleration. The fanatical attitudes of both the Jew and the Christian in this play lead to a lot of agony and mental torture for both sides. The play also teaches that lending money at excessively high rates of interest is a great evil. From the casket story we learn the lesson that appearances deceptive. The friendship between Antonio and Bassanio clearly points to the value of genuine and intimate human relationships. We should not be extravagant like Bassanio, for it may lead us to difficult situations. Bassanio’s lavish style leads him to bankruptcy. So to meet the requirements of Bassanio, Antonio borrows the money from Shylock and is compelled to sign the risky bond. As we see in the later part of the play, both Antonio and Bassanio are in great agony as the bond is forfeited. And for all these problems, the extravagant style of Bassanio is responsible. Hence, we should not be lavish and extravagant. Thus, we can draw several moral lessons from this play though Shakespeare intended it mainly for our entertainment. PORTIA The crow doth sing as sweetly as the lark, When neither is attended, and I think The nightingale, if she should sing by day, When every goose is cackling, would be thought No better a musician than the wren.
A romantic comedy, then, will have the following characteristics: Firstly, it will deal with the lighter side of side; and though clouds may gather in the skies for a short time, they disperse and leave the sky clear. Secondly, it deals with the subject of love. Thirdly, it is not hidebound by classical laws, and hence it allows the introduction of chance or accident. Fourthly, it possesses a light atmosphere; everything which assists such an atmosphere is freely introduced. We have hence songs and dance and music. We also have disguise-scenes because they add to the liveliness of the play. Fifthly, it contains such romantic matters as elopement etc. We must first understand the word ‘romantic’ and ‘comedy’ and then consider if this play is a romantic comedy. There is no doubt absolutely about the fact that the play is a comedy; because it ends happily. The Merchant of Venice ends with: the marriage of three pairs- firstly, the Bassanio-Portia pair, the Gratiano –Nerissa pair and the Lorenzo-Jessica pair; secondly, it ends with the restoration of his ships (and hence his wealth) to Antonio; thirdly, it ends with the endowment of the run-away couple with property and fortune. A romantic play, as opposed to a classical play, doesnot care much for the three classical unities of Time, Place and Action. It gives a lot of scope to chance or accident because chance plays such an important part in the life of man. The romantic play deals with the emotion of love; for, there is nothing more romantic than love; and as the subject which is treated pertains to love; than love; and as the subject which is treated pertains to love; the atmosphere in the play is light and the ending is happy. The play is a comedy, that is, a play which possesses the masque and the disguise, the elopement and the theft- all these are romantic matters which are connected with the elopement incident, becomes romantic. It is romantic because, while teaching the importance of self-surrender in love it emphasizes the element of chance and places before us a novel way of getting a husband. PORTIA We have been praying for our husbands' healths, Which speed, we hope, the better for our words. Are they return'd?
Another romantic incident with which the play deals is the bond-incident. Really speaking it should be a tragic incident; but as matters turn later, what would surely have become tragic becomes romantic; for, having got to shock to his life. Antonio is saved and the accuser, Shylock, is made an accused by a stroke of fortune. This incident is romantic because though Shylock has contrived directly and indirectly against the life of Antonio, he goes unpunished; the only punishment which he receives is to be compelled to donate all he has to his daughter and son-in-law. The incident is romantic because which we are expecting a tragic end of the matter, the tables are suddenly turned and we get a shock of surprise because the matter ends in a different manner. And this incident springs from a romantic cause. Bassanio wants to go to Belmont to get his wife. He borrows money from Antonio; Antonio borrows money from Shylock; Shylock prevails upon him to sign a bond which he calls ‘merry’. Thus the bond-incident is the result of a romantic matter and ends in a romantic manner. ANTONIO I once did lend my body for his wealth; Which, but for him that had your husband's ring, Had quite miscarried: I dare be bound again, My soul upon the forfeit, that your lord Will never more break faith advisedly.
A comedy is a play which ends happily. It deals with the lighter side of life and attempts to hold something to public ridicule. As a comedy ends happily, the atmosphere in a comedy is light and merry and happy. There are some clouds which may float about occasionally; but they soon disappear and the atmosphere again becomes light and merry. The tragic hero fails and fails completely; he is involved in the final disaster with which a tragedy ends; the her in a comedy, on the other hand, experiences all kinds of difficulties-some of the difficulties would appear to be very great-but in the end the hero surmounts all difficulties and becomes successful and he gives a happy ending to the play. Portia manages to get a letter showing that’s all the ships of Antonio have come back and that he is not poor as he thought himself to be. She brings a deed of gift to Jessica and Lorenzo, the runaway couple. It is a deed which is signed by Shylock and it gives all that he has to the two runaway people. The Merchant of Venice thus deals with incidents which are romantic. It is hence a comedy of romantic incidents. Another romantic incident with which the play is concerned is the ring-incident. The wives have given rings to their respective husbands. When the trial is over and Antonio is saved, Bassanio wants to please the lawyer by giving him something. The lawyer refuses money. But insists on having the ring (which Portia has given to him). He parts with it very unwillingly; Gratiano also gives his ring (which was given to him by Nerissa) very unwillingly to the clerk. When they return home to Belmont the wives discover that the rings are gone. There is a quarrel; but everything is satisfactorily solved in the end. This incident is romantic because it possesses an element of mystery. Bassanio and Gratiano do not know that the lawyer and his clerk are Portia and Nerissa respectively. The incident is romantic because it gives a shock of pleasant surprise to Bassanio and Gratiano to know that the lawyer and his clerk are really Portia and Nerissa. The incident is romantic further because it deals with a love- quarrel which ends happily. SHYLOCK Jessica, my girl, Look to my house. I am right loath to go: There is some ill a-brewing towards my rest, For I did dream of money-bags to-night.
The Merchant of Venice contains several improbable and incredible incidents and happenings. It is also difficult to believe that all Antonio’s ships could have been lost; and a further improbability in this connection is that three of his ships are reported as having returned safely to harbour. Even the story of the caskets is not very convincing because it involves a kind of lottery and because success in it is a matter of chance. Another great improbability is that the eminent lawyer, Bellario, recommends Portia for the role of a judge when she has no qualifications at all in legal affairs. And then her disguise as a man without being recognised even by her husband is an even greater improbability. And yet we can stay that Shakespeare has adopted all possible devices to render these absurdities plausible. The choice of the caskets, for instance, is regarded by many as a true test of character, and not merely a lottery. Another romantic incident with which the play deals is the casket-incident. This incident is romantic because it involves the element of chance. There are three different sentences engraved differently on three caskets and the selection of one of them is supposed to bring the right-man to Portia; still one cannot deny the fact that chance plays an important part in this matter. This incident is romantic because it is a novel way of making a selection of the husband leaving no choice to the bride or girl; and it is a romantic incident because it teaches the lesson that self-surrender is the basis of sincerity in love. This incident has a happy ending; but it is something more. It is a comedy of romantic incidents; for, the matters and episodes with which it s concerned are all romantic. If we consider the matter carefully we will note that the main idea of The Merchant of Venice is concerned with the treatment of love. If we consider the major and the minor plots, and if we consider the different incidents (the bond incident, the casket incident, the ring incident, etc.) we note that they emphasize and illustrate love in its several aspects. The first thing which we note is that it illustrates sex-love; but it is looked at from different points of view. Two Christians love each other sincerely; they are Portia and Bassanio. So also two persons belonging to different nationalities and different religions love each other sincerely; they are Jessica who is a Jew and Lorenzo who is a Christian. Here the love exist between members of the same sex; this we find illustrated in the relations between Antonio and Bassanio. Antonio loves Bassanio as dearly as his life-probably more.
NERISSA And pardon me, my gentle Gratiano; For that same scrubbed boy, the doctor's clerk, In lieu of this last night did lie with me.
And when love is sincere; it is sure unfailing guide and all-powerful in its influence. Bassanio makes the right selection not because he is able to reason better than either the Prince of Morocco or the Prince of Arragon, but because he has understood the fact that sincere love is self-sacrifice of his all for the sake of ‘another’. Sincerity and intensity of love depend on the readiness with which the persons are prepared to make sacrifices for each other. It is this that guides Bassanio into making the right selection; and it is this guiding principle love which is illustrated by the Bond Episode. Antonio had already lent money to Bassanio on several occasions in the past; on this occasion when he had no money, he could have told Bassanio that he was unable to help him; but he goes out of his way to borrow it, and he borrows the money from a person whom he had abused; probably Shylock was the only rich man who help him at this time and hence Antonio had to approach him. He signs the ‘merry’ bond, knowing well the danger of the condition mentioned in it. He wanted to help Bassanio, even at risk of his life; and he believed that his ships would come back before tome- these two things guided him when he signed the bond. PORTIA I had it of him: pardon me, Bassanio; For, by this ring, the doctor lay with me.
To different Shakespearean scholars different leading ideas are suggested by this play. Some persons think that retribution is the idea which is suggested by the play. Some people think that the leading idea is contained in Portia’s line- in the course of justice none of us should see salvation- they, think that, -the greatest justice is the greatest injury- is the main idea of the play; some think that the play is designed to show the relation of man to property. Thus different leading ideas are suggested. Dramatic irony is a device which a dramatist makes use of in a play frequently in order to make some part of a scene or some conversation very effective. It is called ‘dramatic’ because, dramatists are frequently in the habit of using it, If it used in a tragedy, it is known as “tragic irony’; if it is used in a comedy, it is known as ‘comic irony’. ANTONIO I am dumb. BASSANIO Were you the doctor and I knew you not? GRATIANO Were you the clerk that is to make me cuckold?
A character in the play performs an action in the full belief that he is acting properly; he performs the act because he does not know certain facts which, however, are known to the audience. The audience knows that the belief of the character is mistaken. Here we have the irony of action or the irony of incident. This variety is illustrated by The Merchant of Venice. In Act IV, Scene I, Bassanio sends his ring after the young lawyer who has saved the life of Antonio, because he believes that the lawyer is a male; but the audience knows that the lawyer is Portia, Bassanio’s wife. This gives a pleasant frame of mind to the audience. Gratiano does an action which is similar to Bassanio’s action. He gives the ring to the lawyer’s clerk, thinking that the clerk is a male; but the audience knows that the clerk is Nerissa. Here we have the irony of action or incident.
SHYLOCK I am bid forth to supper, Jessica: There are my keys. But wherefore should I go? I am not bid for love; they flatter me: But yet I'll go in hate, to feed upon The prodigal Christian. The trial scene, similarly, deals with sincerity of love. Portia exerts herself to save Antonio, not because she knows him nor because she is so humanitarian as to run on every occasion to save persons who are in danger. She exerts herself to save him because he is the friend of her husband whom she loves dearly and sincerely. She would do anything for her husband-it is her love for her husband that makes her so eager to help and save Antonio. A careful consideration of the matter will show that the leading idea of The Merchant of Venice is- self –sacrifice or self-surrender is the basis of love which rules all. It consists in the effect which is produced on account of a conflict between ignorance on the part of a speaker or actor in a play, and knowledge on the part of the audience. The audience knows certain facts, a character does not know these facts; he performs certain actions or speaks certain sentences thinking that his information is correct; but the audience knows that it is not correct. Here the knowledge of the audience of the facts comes into conflict with the ignorance of the speaker or actor regarding those facts; and this conflict tickles the audience and lends a point to the act or conversation which thus produces a great effect. Here we have irony- there are three main varieties of dramatic irony: The Irony of Action, The Verbal Irony, and The Prophetic Irony. A character speaks something in ignorance of certain facts which are known to the audience. This variety is also illustrated in The Merchant of Venice. In Act IV, Scene I Bassanio days, where we have the verbal irony because he speaks these sentiments when, as he thinks his wife is absent; but the audience knows that his wife is present because the lawyer is Portia. NERISSA Ay, but the clerk that never means to do it, Unless he live until he be a man.
Similarly in Act V, Scene I, Gratiano describes the lawyer’s clerk to whom he had given the ring as, here Gratiano doesnot know that he is describing his wife; he does not know that the clerk was Nerissa; but the audience knows it. Here Gratiano speaks something in ignorance of certain facts which are known to the audience. Hence we have verbal irony. BASSANIO Lorenzo and Salerio, welcome hither; If that the youth of my new interest here Have power to bid you welcome. By your leave, I bid my very friends and countrymen, Sweet Portia, welcome.
Portia is an extra ordinary female character with all her potentialities. She is well endowed with the good things of this world. There are a number of scenes in the play The Merchant of Venice in which Portia produces on some readers, and on some spectators in a theatre, the impression that she is a pedantic woman who makes a display of her great intellectual powers and who seeks to impress others with her intellectual caliber. Sometimes these soliloquies reveal the mental disturbance which the speaker may feel. Of such a nature is the aside which Bassanio speaks in the first scene of Act V. the aside, -I were best to cut my left hand off and swear I lost the ring defending it- which Bassanio utters here reveals the mental disturbance which he feels on his own account, after he has observed the quarrel between Gratano and Nerissa. Sometimes such soliloquies and asides show the mental frame of the speaker. Of such a nature is the side in Act I, scene III. Antonio arrives when Shylock and Bassanio are talking. Shylock speaks an ‘aside’ –how like a fawning publican he looks-he is referring to the appearance of Antonio at this time; but this aside reveals the attitude of the mind of Shylock towards Antonio. Thus the soliloquies and asides which are addressed to self are self-revelatory; they indicate the state of mind of the speaker. As The Merchant of Venice is a light comedy, we do not have any illustration of Prophetic Irony in it. Thus this play reveals two varieties of dramatic irony at several places. Some critics find an element of masculinity combined with an element of pedantry or conceit in Portia’s behavior in the trial scene. The question that arises among them is that why she should go wearing masculine clothes and parading as a man, to do something which she could have done by proxy. Her going personally shows nothing but his desire for display her intellectuality and to insult the Jew to heighten the position of her husband. This character of her reveals her to be an exhibitionist. Portia’s activities in the second half of the play is as to why did she not leave it to Bellario to manage the case in the court of the Duke of Venice and why she felt it necessary to go herself in the disguise of a lawyer. The answer to this is that Portia is hereby celebrating her newly obtained freedom. So long as the question as to whom she was to marry remained unsettled she was hedged in by terms of her father’s will and was denied that freedom of action which a woman of her spirit naturally craved for. Safe in the knowledge that she was now wedded to the man of her own choice she allowed herself the priviledge of bold adventure, safely concealing any infringement of the properties by adopting the disguise of a man. All the spirit of adventure which had been pent up in her now comes forward and she indulges it by going out on a mission of love forward and she indulges it by going out on a mission of love and charity. Moreover her male disguise is necessary because she thinks that only she would be able to handle the case in the manner in which it should be handled. This is not a matter of conceit or pedantry. This is a matter of conviction and self- confidence. She does not want that anything should go wrong with the case. Actually far from showing any pedantry on her part, these proceedings show a rare forbearance and patience on her part. She wants to give the Jew every opportunity to get out of the situation which he has created for himself as well as for Antonio. PORTIA Thus hath the candle singed the moth. O, these deliberate fools! when they do choose, They have the wisdom by their wit to lose.
A little problem faces us when we meet Portia in the company of Bassanio before he makes his choice and again at the time that the choice is being made. She is unreserved in her confession of love for him and in her expression of the great anxiety that by some chance his choice might fall on one of the contrary caskets. The touch of womanly weakness which is thus revealed is deliberately designed by Shakespeare to show that with all her self-command Portia was not an absolute miracle of perfection. She is human in her kindly thoughtfulness and in her desire to do good and she is human in her weakness and all the more lovable on that account. But of, she is guilty of having virtually infringed the terms of her father’s will deliberately causing a song to be sung while Bassanio is debating over the caskets and by so choosing the song that Bassanio gets a clear hint that he should not guided by appearances? It may be that there is only an accidental co-existence between the sentiment of the song and the line of thought along which Bassanio works to reach the conclusion that the lead casket is the right casket. But for, even if this were not so, can we blame Portia for having taken a hand in the matter and done something ensure that Bassanio would not fail? Her entire future happiness depended on Bassanio’s not making a mistake and may she not well have been carried away by an overwhelming current of love into a virtual disregard of father’s cramping restrictions on her freedom of will? It must have been with no little anxiety that she saw Morocco and Arragon venturing to choose and in their pride and vanity taking all the risks involved in their doing so. If Portia reasoned out things in this manner she was only human in doing so. What if Bassanio failed to choose the right casket and somebody else of Morocco or Arragon should succeed? If she reasoned out things in this manner she was only human in doing so, and the main thing is that she was not injuring anybody. By commenting on different suitors in the Trial Scene she was just promoting her own happiness and that of others by putting Bassanio on the right line of thought. At the very outset she makes certain comments upon her suitors which indicate that she thinks herself to be a woman of exceptional virtues and merits, and thinks these suitors to be far below her in intellectual power. For instance speaking about the prince from Naples, she says that he is a cold minded because he does nothing but talk of his horse. She says about the Count Palentine that he does nothing but frown, and that he hears merry tales, but smiles not. About the French lord, she says that he is every man in no man and that, if she marries him, she would be marrying twenty husbands. About the young German, she says that she dislikes him in the afternoon when he is drunk. She further says at his worst, this German is little better than a beast. Now such comments on her suitors seem to indicate to some readers Portia’s two high an opinion of herself. These comments seem to show her as a conceited woman having a superiority complex in her nature. Though she is an embodiment of virtue but his scornful attitude towards both the prince of Morocco and the prince of Arragon create the impression of superiority complex. SALANIO But it is true, without any slips of prolixity or crossing the plain highway of talk, that the good Antonio, the honest Antonio,--O that I had a title good enough to keep his name company!—
Critics view that in the Trial Scene Portia follows a procedure which shows her to be a pedantic woman who wishes to make a parade of her intellect. They also opine that her dress was objectionable as it expresses an element of masculinity in Portia. One of the critics expresses the view that there is something feline about her in the Trial Scene, and that from time to time she puts out her claws to play with Shylock just as a cat plays with a mouse before pouncing upon it. But of, we differ from this view- we are of the opinion that the state of suspense, in which she keeps the court, inevitable and unavoidable. She wants to try every possible method of bringing about a change of heart in Shylock so that she does not have to interpret the bond in a strictly literal sense, and thus lay herself open to the charge that she has gone out of the way to deprive Shylock of the pound of flesh to which he is legally entitled. She does not want that she should have to conceit Shylock of having sought the death of a Venetian citizen, and thus expose him to the punishment which such a charge would necessitate. That is why she proceeds step by step. She first tries to appeal to his greed. Next she tries in the same breath to stir his greed and his pity, and here she really shows her greatness as a judge. After having offered him thrice his money, she says-but the Jew does not relent at all. It is at this point that in reply to Antonio’s request for judgement , she tells Antonio to prepare his bosom for Shylock’s knife and a little later, she tells Shylock that the court awarded him a pound of Antonio’s flesh because the law allows him to have it. Shylock refuses even to arrange for a surgeon to stop Antonio’s wounds; and is only then that she paralyses Shylock by telling him that he can have the pound of flesh but that he must not shed a single drop of blood while cutting off the flesh. She has now turned the tables on Shylock, thus winning the admiration of the whole court and thwarting the Jew’s evil design. Enter a Servant Servant Gentlemen, my master Antonio is at his house and desires to speak with you both. SALARINO We have been up and down to seek him.
This incident discussed above makes us to declare that, in the play The Merchant of Venice, Portia is a beautiful creation of Shakespeare. She is a woman with extraordinary caliber and intellect. How she judges the case of Antonio is noteworthy and is the best example of her supernatural intellect and the expressions of extreme potentiality. Thus, if Portia is charged of masculinity, it is her extraordinary capability which gives her strength in a time of diversity. Besides, she is very beautiful and contains a soft heart but never shakes in the adverse conditions. SHYLOCK If a Jew wrong a Christian, what is his humility? Revenge. If a Christian wrong a Jew, what should his sufferance be by Christian example? Why, revenge. The villany you teach me, I will execute, and it shall go hard but I will better the instruction.
The anticipative variety is illustrated in Act II, scene II. Here Launcelot soliloquizes. In his soliloquy which is addressed to the audience though it is spoken to himself, Launcelot points out that he is going to leave Shylock and take up service with Bassanio. The retrospective ‘aside’ is illustrated by Jessica, who in Act II, scene V remarks- I have a father, you, a daughter lost- here, she speaks of absconding as surely as though it has happened. SALANIO Let me say 'amen' betimes, lest the devil cross my prayer, for here he comes in the likeness of a Jew.
The Merchant of Venice thus illustrates all the three varieties of soliloquies and asides which serve various purposes- Firstly, they reveal the character of the speaker. Secondly, they show the motive-springs of the actions of the speaker. Thirdly, they exhibit the mental disturbance of the speaker. Fourthly, they show the line of action which the speaker is going to take and fifthly, they refer to something which has happened. Shakespeare’s depiction of the character of Shylock is one of his greatest triumphs. The name Shylock has become a byword for miserliness, fanaticism, avarice, cunningness, hypocrisy and cruelty. We know Shylock in this play as money-lender, as a fanatical follower of his religion as a hater of Christianity, as a hypocritical and cunning man. He can lay a trap for his enemy and even catch him, as a tyrannical father, as a hoarder of money, and as a revengeful and blood-thirsty person. All these aspects of Shylock’s personality have been presented to us most vividly and through realistic situations. Shylock’s portrait given by Shakespeare is complete in all respects. He is an unforgettable creation of Shakespeare’s fertile and prolific genius. We see him in his household, on the Rialto, in his business dealings with his fellow Jews and with Christians. We are into the contact with almost every segment of Venetian society through him. Shylock nevertheless presents the most interesting psychological study in the play. In making an analysis of his character there are two things we have to bear in mind. First Shakespeare had to allow for the prevalent anti-semitic prejudices of his time and he had to conform the some respect at least to the tradition of the Jew as a monster of cruelty and rapacity- a tradition which had been handed down from the Middle Ages. Secondly, it was invariably Shakespeare’s practice to keep his characters within the pale of humanity even when the exigencies of his plot required that he should depict some of them as villains. If the actions of these villains are highly reprehensible from the ethical stand-point, and even from that of ordinary humanity, they are at least understandable as having arisen from circumstances not entirely within the control of the villains concerned. PORTIA No more, I pray thee: I am half afeard Thou wilt say anon he is some kin to thee, Thou spend'st such high-day wit in praising him. Come, come, Nerissa; for I long to see Quick Cupid's post that comes so mannerly.
Soliloquies and asides are unnatural, because no one in real life, soliloquizes loudly or indulges in asides unless he is a mad person. Hence they are, on the modern stage, avoided as far as possible. But of, in the days of Elizabeth, dramatists found them of great use and hence they freely used soliloquies and asides in their plays, to perform certain functions. Soliloquies and asides are of three kinds: Firstly, those that are addressed to one’s own self. Secondly, those that are addressed to the audience (though they appear to be addressed to self). Thirdly, those that are of mixed type that is, partly addressed to self and partly to the audience. NERISSA Bassanio, lord Love, if thy will it be!
The third variety which is of mixed type is illustrated by Jessica’s soliloquy with which scene III of Act ends. The soliloquy begins with -Alack, what heinous-etc.: In this soliloquy Jessica points out what she is going to do, and it also indicates her mental disturbance. She is pained on account of the manners of her father, Shylock; and she tells us that she will become a Christian and marry Lorenzo. (SALANIO ) Enter SHYLOCK How now, Shylock! what news among the merchants? SHYLOCK You know, none so well, none so well as you, of my daughter's flight.
Shylock was by no means a persona non grata in Venice. Antonio had a particular dislike of him, a dislike mounting to a curious combination of hatred and contempt, but the dislike was by no means confined to Antonio. The ill-feeling against Shylock was not entirely due to his nationality and his religion. Rather it is to be traced to the fact that Shylock embodied ` in himself all the most unpleasant features of the race to which he belonged. Being exceedingly passionate by nature he concentrated within himself the utter detestation of his race by all by all communities, outside his own, more particularly by the Christians. Correspondently he felt that every affront offered to the Jews individually and collectively was something which he personally should take to heart and should regard as one more motive for using every opportunity which might come his way to avenge himself on the Christians. Shylock’s self-righteousness is of a distinctly odious kind. This manifests itself particularly in his sticking rigorously to the letter of the law and altogether neglecting its spirit. He justifies his practice of usury by narrating the story the story of Jacob and Laban. With an ugly relish. If one of the patriarchs of his race could resort to doubtful practices in order to gain material profit, it followed that he stood equally justified in the tricks and strategies which he adopted in order to make his money breed as fast as ewes and rams. Again, when he is offered three and more times the value of his bond, he would not have the money but insists on having the pound of flesh to which the law apparently entitled him. If the bond was decreed as a valid document by a competent court of law, then it followed that the execution of its provisions could not therefore bring down any judgement, human or divine on his head. But at, the idea that the causing of wrongful losses to others because of his desire to quickly enriches himself is a breach of the spirit of the law, is conveniently, excluded from his mind. This is so because he is so entirely wrapped up in himself. He is essentially an unsocial nature; it is not in respect of his religion alone but in every feature of his life that he shows, himself to have a superficially exclusive temperament and all this arises from the unfortunate conviction that, in all his doings, he stands justified in the eyes of law. We can understand Jessica’s speaking of her home as a Hell and of her taking the first opportunity which comes her way to leave her father. Her readiness to become a Christian is due mainly to the fact that Shylock had made the Jewish religion extremely disagreeable to her by practicing it and insisting on her practicing it in its least social and tolerant aspect. Shylock is the rich Jewish money lender of Venice, who lends money on interest. The medieval Christian tradition does not allow the Christians to do money lending and as the Jews cannot participate in any other profession apart from money lending therefore Shylock is left with no other profession to pursue. But for, when he plots against the life of Antonio, it shows his villainous mind which is motivated only by hatred and revenge. Therefore, his daughter Jessica even abhors him and elopes with Christian Lorenzo. At the trial scene, villainy becomes evident when he whets the knife to take his due-a pound of Antonio’s flesh, though Portia’s eloquence and ‘legal expertise’ makes him fall in the pit that he himself has dug. – (Followed from Workbook Notes.) Shylock was a usurer and a miser, cannot be denied. But at, the love of money does not seem to have been an original and ingrained passion in him. It is something which arose out of the circumstances in which he found himself in Venice, as well as out of his devotion to his race and his religion. The requisition of wealth was the only means by which he could acquire something of ascendancy in the world of Christian prejudices amidst which his lot was cast. He is a great miser. His treatment of his servant Launcelot Gobbo provides ample evidence for this trait of his character. Launcelot tells his father that he is “famished’ in the Jew’s service. And the irony here is that Shylock thanks himself to be a very generous employer. Then Shylock is a narrow-minded and tyrannical father. He exercises great vigilance over his daughter’s movements and puts all kinds of restrictions upon her, forbidden her even to watch from the windows of her house a procession passing through the street below. No wonder that his daughter hates him and runs away from home, taking away with her a considerable portion of his money and his jewels. Of course, in this particular situation he does win a bit of our sympathy, but in all other respects we find him to be a detestable person. Shylock is a hypocrite and also a cunning man. After receiving a stern and insulting reply from Antonio to his complaint about Antonio’s past ill-treatment of him, Shylock tries to soothe Antonio’s feelings by saying that he only wants to win Antonio’s friendship and not to offend him in any manner. This is a sheer hypocrisy on his part because he is forming a project in his mind to avenge insults which Antonio had been heaping on him in the past. He then agrees to lend the required amount of money to Antonio though he wants Antonio to sign a bond to the effect that, if Antonio fails to repay the loan within a period of three months. Shylock would be entitled to cut off a pound of flesh from the nearest Antonio’s heart. And he again shows his hypocrisy by saying that he intends this clause as merely a kind of joke. Actually he is here laying the foundations of the revenge which he can take in case the opportunity comes his way. He has laid a trap far Antonio, and it is quite possible that later he spread a malicious rumour that all Antonio’s ships have been lost on the sea. The reported losses of Antonio brings about a crisis in Antonio‘s life. Some of us believe that Shakespeare has created the character of Shylock in order to draw public sympathy for the Jewish race that had been presented by the Christian for centuries while a few of us think that Shylock was created by Shakespeare in order to feed the anti-Jewish feelings of the Elizabeth Christians. But for, none of our views is correct because Shakespeare, being a great artist, created Shylock just as a dramatic character without any particular motive either for or against the Jews because Shakespeare has not painted Shylock as a pure devil or as the hero of the play. A superficial study of Shylock’s character makes us to find that he is all evil, all wickedness, all cruelty and malice, all avarice and greed for money, and nothing else, but if we go deeper we find him not absolutely without some touch of humanity in his relations either with his daughter or with his domestic servants or with the Christians in general or even with Antonio in particular. While judging the character of Shylock we must not forget how much Shylock’s race has suffered in the hands of the Christians or how much material loss or personal humiliation. Shylock has suffered in the hands of Antonio. We notice in the play how Antonio abuses Shylock even while he is approaching Shylock for a loan that is not the way of approaching a person for some personal favour. Then again, if we believe what Shylock says about Antonio’s treatment towards Shylock at the public places , at the Rialto and also how much material loss Antonio had brought upon Shylock by lending money to people free of interest and also by helping them frequently with loans whenever they had been in trouble particularly in paying penalties to Shylock, we cannot possibly regard Shylock at all a devil or a human beast as some of the critics have nicknamed him. ARRAGON What's here? the portrait of a blinking idiot, Presenting me a schedule! I will read it. How much unlike art thou to Portia! How much unlike my hopes and my deservings! 'Who chooseth me shall have as much as he deserves.'
Shakespeare while painting the character of Shylock, must have had in his view not only the centuries of prejudice of the Christians against the Jews but also the centuries of persecution of the Jews by the Christians; that is why, he has made Shylock talk in that pathetic and even in that revengeful manner, reflecting thereby must correctly the relations between the Jews and the Christians during the Elizabeth Age. PORTIA Behold, there stand the caskets, noble prince: If you choose that wherein I am contain'd, Straight shall our nuptial rites be solemnized: But if you fail, without more speech, my lord, You must be gone from hence immediately.
The manner in which Shylock is treated in the Trial Scene of the play is most unkind and unfair, particularly , because he is robbed by a quibble of law not only of the loan money which he had advanced to Antonio, but also of all his property on the excuse that he had been conspiring against the life of Antonio. It is here that he excites our sympathy to such an extent that we begin to think that he has been gravely wronged. It is here that we accept the oft-quoted dictum that he is as much sinned against sinning. It was enough to have defeated him in his purpose to kill Antonio, and to have dispossessed him of all his wealth too. But for, it is going too far to compel him to change his religion and become a Christian. At this he totters out of the court, a broken man with a shattered mind, with no one at all to speak a word of comfort to him. Such punishment might not have moved the Elizabethan audiences to sympathy for Shylock, but it does move us to sympathy for him, and to regard him as a victim of Christian fanaticism and persecution. Fortunately the Jews of our times have distinguished themselves. Shylock is intensely and genuinely devoted to his religion Antonio has been ill-treating him because he is a Jew. And Shylock now asks Antonio ‘s two friends if a Jew does not have eyes, hands, organs, dimensions, sense, affections, and passions. He asks if a Jew is not fed with the same food, hurt with the same weapons, subject to the same diseases, healed by the same means, warmed and cooled by the same winter and summer as a Christian is. He further asks if a Jew does not bleed when he is pricked by a Christian. Shylock then concludes by saying, -If we are like you in the rest, we will resemble you in that- what Shylock here means to say is that a Jew is as much of a human being as a Christian is and that a Jew has the same instincts and impulses a Christian has and his next remark in the same content is the one which is quoted in the question before used. A Christian shows no leniency to a Jew if a Jew does any wrong to a Christian. The Christian seeks revenge in that situation. By the same logic, a Jew should also show no leniency to a Christian if a Christian does any wrong to a Jew. A Jew should also seek revenge in that situation. According to Shylock it is the intolerance of the Christians towards the Jews which has taught the Jews to become intolerant towards the Christians. And so speaking in a fierce and ferocious tone, Shylock says that he has learnt to behave in a villainous manner towards the Christians because the Christians have been behaving in a villainous manner towards him and towards the other Jews. The words spoken by Shylock show also the firmness and the rigidity of his character. He is not the kind of man who would soften or relent when an appeal for mercy or leniency is made to him. The language which he has employed here and the tone in which he speaks here, clearly show a strong minded, strong willed man with a strong resolve and determination. He may be an evil man but his fixity of purpose and his unwavering mind compel our admiration for him. He is a fanatical Jew; and he is as fanatical as the Christians were in those days. – That a Jew, despised and hunted down, should turn a villain, showing the greatest cunning and malevolence when he gets an opportunity is quite natural. If we analyse, Shylock’s motive and action, we find this is what happened when Antonio comes to him for a loan of three thousand ducats. Shylock, shrewd and crafty knave as he is, pauses and wavers- seems to be in a fit of abstraction. Shylock’s attempt to take revenge on Antonio is noble and dignified, because it is a protest against inhumanity of treatment to which the Jews as a race have been subjected through the ages. To quote Hazlitt “If he carries his revenge too far, yet he has strong grounds for the lodged hate he bears Antonio, which he explains with equal force of eloquence and reason.” He seems the “depository of the vengeance of his race. “ In the trial scene he towers over every other character. As Hazlitt says, “In all his answers and retorts upon his adversaries, he has the best not only the argument but of the question, reasoning on their own principles and practice.” Nor can we say that in the trial scene he ever loses the dignity and stateliness of manner and utterance befitting a tragic here. Raleigh writes “Antonio and Bassanio are pale shadows of men compared with this gaunt, tragic figure, whose love of his race is as deep as life; who pleads the cause of common humanity against the cruelties of prejudice; whose very hatred has in it something of the nobility of patriotic passion, whose heart is stirred with tender memories even in the midst of his lament over the stolen ducats, who in the end, is dismissed, unprotesting to insult and oblivion. “ SALANIO I think he only loves the world for him. I pray thee, let us go and find him out And quicken his embraced heaviness With some delight or other.
The causeless melancholy of Antonio in the opening scene strikes the key note of this serious main plot bordering on the tragic. Antonio’s words in the first scene of the play are charged with sadness. We then pass on to the signing of the fantastic bond which gives to Shylock the right to cut off one pound of Antonio’s flesh from any part of the body the Jew likes, in the event of Antonio’s inability to repay the loan within a certain period. Antonio makes but two attempts and they also not very enthusiastic, to plead his cause. He would not move out of his lethargy to any greater extent. In the whole of the Trial Scene he does to make even one appeal. He takes his death as granted and perfectly reconciles himself to it. In the Ring Episode he hardly says anything where he could have pleaded for Bassanio. The soliloquies and asides which are meant for the audience, (though they are apparently addressed to self), may be of two varieties- firstly, they may be retrospective in nature; or Secondly, they may be anticipative. In other words, the retrospective soliloquies may inform the audience of what has happened or what the speaker has done; the anticipative soliloquies may inform the audience of what is to happen or what the speaker is going to do. SALARINO Marry, well remember'd. I reason'd with a Frenchman yesterday, Who told me, in the narrow seas that part The French and English, there miscarried A vessel of our country richly fraught: I thought upon Antonio when he told me; And wish'd in silence that it were not his.
As time marches on, the depressing news of Antonio’s losses is received. This fills us with anxiety about Antonio. Later on we hear Shylock declaring his intention to enforce the bond and this deepens the gloom: -Let him look to his bond: he was wont to call me usurer; let him look to his bond: he was wont to lend money for Christian courtesy; let him look to his bond- Clouds of an impending disaster have begun to usher on horizon. MOROCCO O hell! what have we here? A carrion Death, within whose empty eye There is a written scroll! I'll read the writing.
Thus, when introduced he is in a fit of depression. His melancholy has been variously explained but it seems partly temperamental as he himself declares, calling the world a stage where on his part is a sad one; and partly arising from a presentiment of evil. In any case, he supplies a background of sadness to the play. And his chief importance, apart from his being the pivot of the action, consists in serving as the vehicle of an atmosphere in the play because, as a dramatic character, he is negative, being a shadow beside Shylock and Portia. –He provides for the beginning of the play what the lyrical antiphony of Lorenzo and Jessica does for the end of it. SALARINO Why, man, I saw Bassanio under sail: With him is Gratiano gone along; And in their ship I am sure Lorenzo is not.
It is significant that the very first words that he utters-and they are the very first words of the play, too are- In sooth, I know not why I am so sad- He says it wearies him. This melancholy and especially this weariness is throughout the characteristics of his character. Throughout the play he is weary of the world he lives in. GRATIANO I am glad on't: I desire no more delight Than to be under sail and gone to-night.
This weariness has been revealed in the very opening scene. The same resignation and weariness, the same lack of struggle is also evident, when he says of his regard to himself as doomed and refuses to struggle even. This is height-or depth –of pessimism. And it is, not in words only that he is thus melancholy and resigned. His actions or the lack of action in him- is even more significant. One could understand his signing of the bond to some extent. But of, how are we to understand his total indifference to the fate that hangs over his head? He makes no effort to raise the three thousand ducats in order to pay off the debt. He patiently awaits Shylock and reluctantly allows him to come and catch hold of him by the neck. JESSICA What, must I hold a candle to my shames? They in themselves, good-sooth, are too too light. Why, 'tis an office of discovery, love; And I should be obscured.
When asked Salario and Solanio the reason of melancholy Antonio replies he does not know its origin. He further says that his sadness sees to have robbed him to all his understanding and that he is now hardly able to recognize himself. This reply by Antonio shows that his melancholy is a recent development in his character, and not an original trait of his character. To find out the reason Salario and Solanio guess that Antonio’s melancholy may have arisen from his anxiety about his ships which are laden with rich merchandise and which are voyaging upon the seas and facing all those dangers to which ships are generally exposed. But of, Antonio rejects their suggestion and says that all his merchandise is not being carried by one single ship, and that all his ships are not sailing to one single destination. Solanio says that Antonio might be feeling worried because he has fallen in love; but to this suggestion Antonio merely replies; -Fie, fie- Solanio thereupon says that Antonio obviously belongs to the category of those people who are by nature melancholy, and who never laugh even at a very amusing joke. Then again Gratiano enquires of his sickness when he appears on the scene in the company of Bassanio and Lorenzo. In reply Antonio says that he regards the world as the stage of a theatre on which every man has to play a certain role and his role being a sad one. His utterance implies that his melancholy is something inborn and temperamental. As we are given the impression that the melancholy of Antonio has not been previously known to Antonio’s friends, and that it must therefore be of a recent origin. But for, later we come to know that this melancholy is something inborn and something basic to his nature. Whatever the reason of the melancholy of Antonio is, it cannot be ignored by us. The melancholy has its dramatic significance. It is indeed the melancholy of Antonio in the opening scene which renders him liable to do things which a man would not do normally. It is due to his melancholy in the opening scene that prevents him from realizing the danger to which he is exposing himself by signing a bond containing a clause about the pound of flesh. Antonio is in a mood in which he can talk in an irrational manner. Antonio’s melancholy is the drawback of his character. It makes him whimsical and extravagantly devoted to his friend. His melancholy is the symptom of his whimsicality. Antonio’s melancholy strikes the keynote of the play which is serious and tragic. The report of Antonio’s ships having been wrecked leads to disastrous consequences. Antonio is declared bankrupt on the basis of that report. Shylock’s reaction to this bankruptcy is one of gays because Antonio is now in no position to pay his debt to Shylock who declares his resolve to demand a pound of flesh of his body to be cut off from nearest of Antonio’s heart. This Antonio is now facing a grim situation even more rim when Antonio’s trial begins. Shylock has even begun to sharpen his knife in anticipation of winning the case. He was sure enough that he will win the case and will be allowed to cut off a pound of flesh from Antonio’s body according to forfeiture of the bond. He is quite sure that he will be able to all put an end to his enemy’s life and to all these events. We know also through the signing of the bond Shylock tries to irritate Antonio to achieve his purpose. He reminds Antonio of the former insults and injures Antonio had done to Shylock. Shylock further sarcastically points out that a person, who has always been calling Shylock a dog, cannot possibly lend any money. When Antonio is off his guard in his fit of anger and disgust, Shylock at once pretends to be friendly to him but then Antonio does not forget his anger. He says to Shylock plainly that if he puts down any term of the bond he will sign it, and if fails to pay back the loan, let him realize the utmost penalty from him like an enemy. That is how Antonio signs the bond. Then again, Shylock also suggests Antonio to take the bond in merry spurt and not seriously because who on earth could believe that at the forfeiture of the bond one could demand a pound of human flesh? SHYLOCK Let not the sound of shallow foppery enter My sober house. By Jacob's staff, I swear, I have no mind of feasting forth to-night: But I will go. Go you before me, sirrah; Say I will come.
On the very face of such a will it is evident that the choice of the caskets is a kind of lottery; but then, if we consider the mottos on the caskets we feel that there must be some hidden motive behind this lottery. Many of the readers of the modern world say that this choice of the caskets reflects nothing but the ignorance and superstition of the father of Portia who believed in blind fate particularly in human marriage. Shakespeare says in the present play that hanging and marriage go by destiny; and therefore, if we take the choice of caskets from the Elizabethan stand point, it should be no better than a gamble of chance in the choice of one’s marriage. The inscription on the gold casket means that most people are attracted by gold but we know what goldsmith has said, where wealth accumulates men decay; not only that, even when people become wealthy they become corrupt with many vices. So to be attracted by gold or wealth means inviting ruin. The significance of the motto on the silver casket is that everybody should get what he deserves; but the question is how one can judge how much one deserves, because everybody has got in him some amount of vanity or self-conceit, and therefore, everybody is likely to overrate himself, and naturally everybody thinks that he deserves everything. So, it is risky on one’s part to judge what one really deserves. The motto on the leaden casket says that whoever will risk his all, will get the thing for which he will risk his all, which means no gain without risk or unless one works hard and puts in his best energy one cannot expect to succeed in anything. But at, if any one goes to apply all his energy to a thing without considering the outward appearances or without considering what one deserves, one is very likely to be rewarded with success. That is how we can say that the inscriptions on the caskets will truly bring out the character of a man and will test him whether he is really fit for getting anything. Bassanio correctly interprets the inscriptions on the caskets, and that is why he succeeds in choosing the right casket. His manner of interpretations of the inscriptions serves as the test of his character, and proves that Bassanio is not a man tempted by the glitter of things, nor is a man to be misled by his vanity to overrate himself but that he is a man , who believes in putting in all his energy in order to win something whatever may be his aim, as in the present case, his sole aim is to win Portia. BASSANIO No, that were pity: I would entreat you rather to put on Your boldest suit of mirth, for we have friends That purpose merriment. In the Casket-Story of the play, three caskets are mentioned, which are made of three metals-gold, silver and lead. Certain mottos are inscribed on each of the caskets. One of these caskets holds the portrait of Portia. It is laid down in the will of Portia’s deceased father that whoever happens to choose the casket in which Portia’s portrait is concealed will win Portia for his bride. LORENZO Sweet friends, your patience for my long abode; Not I, but my affairs, have made you wait: When you shall please to play the thieves for wives, I'll watch as long for you then. Approach; Here dwells my father Jew. Ho! who's within?
According to Bassanio people are always misled by external ornamentation or outward adornment. In the sphere of law, even the most untruthful case is made to appear genuine and true by an advocate who possess a persuasive voice and who can, by the very tones of his speech, hides the evil which he wants to depict as something good. In the sphere of religion, the same thing happens. Even the worst kind of falsehood and superstition can be made to appear praiseworthy and admirable by a man by quoting some misleading example or precedent from a scripture. Many men, who are cowards at heart, try to look brave and fearless by wearing the beard of Hercules on their chins in the frowns of Mars on their foreheads. Thus ornament is like a treacherous shore which hides the dangerous rocks threatening the safety of approaching ships. And so Bassanio rejects the casket made of gold which proved to be “hard food for king Midas”. He also rejects the silver casket because silver, he says, is the common drudge between man and man, (that is the medium of monetary exchange in human transactions). He then chooses the lead casket which rather threatens than promises anything. The paleness of lead moves him more than the eloquence of gold or silver. The choice of a casket to determine a candidate’s suitability as a husband for Portia looks absurd. People buy lottery tickets in the hope of winning a large amount of money which has been fixes as the prize for a ticket which bears a particular number. But at, as everybody knows winning a lottery is a matter of pure chance. Nobody has ever held that the winner of a lottery is a man of integrity, or a man of a sound character or a reliable man, or a man with an unerring judgement. In the same way it would seem, on a superficial view, that a suitor’s choice of the right casket in The Merchant of Venice would be a matter purely of chance, and not an indication of the good qualities which he might be possessing. In other words, it seems to have devised this strange method for the selection of a husband for Portia. Portia’s late father seems to have been a crank; and Portia therefore seems to be a stupid woman who blindly believes in the method laid down by her late father. The choice of a casket as a test of character therefore seems to be one of the many absurdities in this play which has something been compared to a fairy tale. LAUNCELOT, the comedian of the play. He is at first Shylock’s servant, then goes to work for Bassanio. His clowning often takes the form of misusing the English language; it is sometimes a welcome break from the tense or romantic scenes. (Oxford Edition: Shakespeare)
Adieu! tears exhibit my tongue. Most beautiful pagan, most sweet Jew! if a Christian did not play the knave and get thee, I am much deceived. But, adieu: these foolish drops do something drown my manly spirit: adieu.
The choice has to be made from amongst three caskets which are made of gold , silver and lead respectively. Each casket bears an inscription as a sort of clue to guide the suitor. The inscription on the gold casket is : “Who chooseth me, shall gain what many men desire- The inscription on the silver casket reads this- Who chooseth me, shall get as much as he deserves- And the inscription on the lead casket is – Who chooseth me, must give and hazards all he hath- Portia’s portrait could have been placed in any of these caskets; and the successful chooser could then have been described as the wises or the most suitable man to marry the lady. Much can be said in favour of each of the caskets. After all, the arguments given by the Prince of Morocco are very strong; and so are the arguments offered by the Prince of Arragon. How can we quarrel with the Prince of Arragon‘s reasoning, according to which only merit and ability should determine the selection? Indeed,. The reasoning followed by the Prince of Arragon is unquestionable. How many times in the course of a day do we hear people complaining that worth and merit are being ignored in the selection of candidates for high offices and high positions? There is nothing wrong very wrong even with the Prince of Morocco’s reasoning. And yet both these suitors fail in the test. BASSANIO Pray thee, take pain To allay with some cold drops of modesty Thy skipping spirit, lest through thy wild behavior I be misconstrued in the place I go to, And lose my hopes.
It is obvious from the lottery incident that the key to the fate of a suitor is not to be found in the reasoning which he goes through. It is a case like that of children who are asked to guess in which hand a sweetmeat is hidden. Moulton is of the view that we are here dealing with an international puzzle. Even if our intellectual leads us to decide in favour of lead, there would be the chance that such a decision had been anticipated by Portia’s father. Portia looks upon the caskets as something which put a restraint upon the free exercise of her will. I may neither choose whom I would nor refuse whom I dislike, remarks she; she looks upon the caskets as ‘a lottery of my destiny’ because it is by an accident that the right casket would be chosen. The Prince of Morocco looks upon the right selection as a matter of ‘chance’. –Bring me unto my chance- says he, to my fortune. The Prince of Arragon also looks upon the selection of the right casket as a matter of fortune. –If I do fail in the fortune of my choice – then, -Fortune now to my heart’s hope- such are the remarks of the Prince of Arragon. Even Bassanio says-But let me to my fortune and the caskets- The remarks and views of the different suitors and of Portia herself would lead us to think that the moral of the casket incident is this- Destiny is all-powerful and she guides all human actions. Fate rules all- seems to be the moral of the casket –incident; and Portia rightly remarks: when they choose, they have the wisdom by their wit to lose. LAUNCELOT Ergo, Master Launcelot. Talk not of Master Launcelot, father; for the young gentleman, according to Fates and Destinies and such odd sayings, the Sisters Three and such branches of learning, is indeed deceased, or, as you would say in plain terms, gone to heaven.
Character is the aggregate or the sum total of all the experiences. Of a man’s life, and of all his meditations and his thinking. Or, we may say that character is the grand resultant of all the forces which have been working upon a man’s mind and personality during his life. In the present case, therefore while all the three suitors believe that they are making a choice on the basis of their rational judgement, actually their choice is being determined by their respective characters. The Prince of Morocco thinks himself to be half-divine. He dislikes lead because of his exalted view of himself; and he rejects silver because of a touch of modesty in his pride. He doubts whether he really deserves Portia’s; and so he chooses the gold casket. The Prince of Arragon possesses the pride of family and having a high opinion of his merit and ability thinks that he fully deserves Portia. Accordingly, he chooses the silver casket. Bassanio possesses the pride of a soldier who is not discouraged by any threat or danger and so he chooses the leaden casket. Besides, he is a lover who will hazard everything for the sake of love. And so he chooses a casket which threatens rather than promises anything. And thus the strange puzzle , conceived by the holy father who was divinely inspired while dying, has actually proved to be the true test of the inmost character of each suitor. If we denote some more thought to the matter we would find that the sentences which are engraved on the different caskets possess an importance. The three different sentences on three different caskets present three different ideas. They are pursuit of a popular matter, emphasis on self opinion, and self sacrifice. The moral of the casket-incident thus seems to be- that a man must dedicate himself to the service of others. And it appears that this is the chief moral of the incident; for happiness in marriage depends on the readiness with which the husband devotes himself to the service of his wife devotes herself to the service of his wife and the wife devotes herself to the service of her husband. Mutual concessions and devotion to each other are the main supports of conjugal life. This was probably the idea which guided the father of Portia when he devised the ‘lottery of caskets’. The moral of the casket incident seems to be- Firstly, man should be ready to dedicate himself to the service of other. Along with this main idea the casket incident conveys other ideas also. Secondly, outward shows do not indicate inner worth or merit. Thirdly, Fortune rules all. LAUNCELOT Nay, indeed, if you had your eyes, you might fail of the knowing me: it is a wise father that knows his own child. Well, old man, I will tell you news of your son: give me your blessing: truth will come to light; murder cannot be hid long; a man's son may, but at the length truth will out.
If an idiot has stumbled upon the right choice, what would Lady Portia then have done? Every author looks at life from a certain angle; and it is this angle which determines the kind of reality that he depicts in his work. Thus considering every play by Shakespeare or by any other author may be described as a representation of life or as a criticism of life and some of its aspects. Of course we generally speak of literature being an imitation of life or a representation of life or a reflection of life. The fact cannot be denied that an author, while portraying life and human nature at work, lives his own point of view to us in the process. GOBBO By God's sonties, 'twill be a hard way to hit. Can you tell me whether one Launcelot,
The Merchant of Venice holds the mirror to certain aspects of life in such a way that we become aware of certain truths of human life which we had previously known only vaguely. Shakespeare’s portrayal of life and human nature in this play reveals his own attitude towards life in general, and towards some of its customs, practices and institutions. In fact this particular play of Shakespeare, is a criticism of usury as well as of religious fanaticism. The whole play centres round these two aspects of the life of that time. Shakespeare has, here, shown us the evil of religious intolerance. It is evident that the play depicts usury and religious intolerance as two great evils. The other evil that the play brings to our notice is the extravagance. Bassanio is a prodigal young man, and his living beyond his means thus becomes the cause of a great misfortune in Antonio’s life and in his own life as well.
PORTIA
You must take your chance,
And either not attempt to choose at all
Or swear before you choose, if you choose wrong
Never to speak to lady afterward
In way of marriage: therefore be advised.
To sum up it may be said that Shakespeare has criticized people, through the device of casket choice, who are lured by outward show and false glitter. ANTONIO Mark you this, Bassanio, The devil can cite Scripture for his purpose. An evil soul producing holy witness Is like a villain with a smiling cheek, A goodly apple rotten at the heart: O, what a goodly outside falsehood hath!
In the play, The Merchant of Venice the manner in which Shylock is treated shows clearly that Shakespeare wanted either to paint the attitude of the Christians towards the Jews- the attitude of hatred and enmity or to enlist the sympathy of the audience, showing how Shylock has been most unfairly and even illegally, robbed of his due penalty of the bond as well as of all his property. Not only that; but, Shylock has also been literally outraged being forcibly converted into a Christian particularly when we know that Shylock is an orthodox Jew Christianity. Some of the critics have been misled to think that Shakespeare probably wanted to preach toleration to the Jews through The Merchant of Venice. But of, they should know that Shakespeare, being a great artist, could not possibly have any didactic or moral motive behind any of his plays. It is quite likely that Shakespeare being more commercial minded, took the theme of persecution of the Jews as the most profitable theme at the time when the relations between the Christian would like to see a character like Shylock to be the victim of persecution by the Christian upon the stage. Religious intolerance is one of the dominant themes of The Merchant of Venice, and the play is indirectly a plea for religious tolerance. We are here dealing with a play which depicts the evil resulting from religious intolerance, though the play has another theme, which is even more important, the other theme being the evils of usury and avarice. The main story in this play is the Bond Story or the pound of flesh story which centres round Shylock’s desire for revenge upon Antonio whom he regards as his enemy and to whom he is bitterly hostile thus, in one sense, this play has revenge as its theme. But of, there have to be reasons or motives behind a desire for revenge. Speaking about Antonio, Shylock says, - I hate him for he is a Christian-this is one reason why Shylock feels hostile to Antonio. But of, there is another reason for his hostility. Antonio brings down the rate of interest in Venice, adversely affecting the professional income of Shylock who is usury. Shylock’s greed or avarice may therefore be regarded as a more powerful motive behind his revengefulness. Due to the religious fanaticism Jew hates the Christian. Another reason of Shylock’s hatred of Antonio is his daughter Jessica who runs away with a Christian young man with a Christian young man with whom she has fallen in love: Jessica not only runs away from home but also takes away a considerable portion of his money and jewel which he had been accumulating. When he is lamenting the loss of his daughter he also laments the loss of his ducats and his jewels, referring to his ducats as –Christian ducats- meaning, of the money which he had earned as interest on the loans he had been giving to the Christians in Venice. ANTONIO This was a venture, sir, that Jacob served for; A thing not in his power to bring to pass, But sway'd and fashion'd by the hand of heaven. Was this inserted to make interest good? Or is your gold and silver ewes and rams?
Religious intolerance is one of the dominant themes of The Merchant of Venice and the play is indirectly a plea for religious tolerance. The Merchant of Venice is a play which depicts the evil resulting from religious intolerance. The main story in this play is the Bond Story or the pound-of-flesh story which centres round Shylock’s desire for revenge upon Antonio whom he regards as his enemy and to whom he is bitterly hostile. Our initial impression of Bassanio is that he is dowry seeker or a fortune hunter and that he is an irresponsible man living above his means and borrowing money from his rich friend however he is in need of it. If we think Bassanio in this term we cannot believe that he could have chosen right casket. And so we come back to the point from where we had started. Is the device of the caskets a sound for judging a suitor’s character? We do not think totally that this device of Portia’s father is a reliable test of the character of a suitor…! If Shylock hates all Christians, and more particularly Antonio, the Christians also hate him, and the reason of their hatred is that he was a Jew. Of course, the Christians hate him because he is a usurer and a miser. Antonio hates him particularly and he hates him bitterly for both these reasons. Another calls Shylock a misbeliever and a cut-throat dog. Antonio told that he will keep on calling Shylock a dog in future also and that he would spit on him. Antonio further added that if Shylock is going to lend him the money, he should do so not in a spirit of friendship. But in a spirit of antagonism so that if the loan is not repaid in time, Shylock should be able to demand the penalty with a stronger justification. Antonio here shows himself as an extremist in his attitude towards religion. Antonio with all his good qualities like- honesty, kind-heartedness is an intolerant Christian who abhorrently hates the Jewish religion. This intolerance on Antonio’s part bears a stigma on his character. If devoid of this he would have been regarded as a man of extraordinary personality. JESSICA I am sorry thou wilt leave my father so: Our house is hell, and thou, a merry devil, Didst rob it of some taste of tediousness. But fare thee well, there is a ducat for thee: And, Launcelot, soon at supper shalt thou see Lorenzo, who is thy new master's guest: Give him this letter;
Shylock’s own religious intolerance aggravates his antagonism towards Antonio and hardens him in his demand for a pound of Antonio’s flesh when the time comes. Antonio’s tragedy is averted by the judges’s ingenious interpretation of the bond. But at, the Christians who were in upper hand, too show no mercy to Shylock. Even Portia forgets her own quality of mercy’ speech. Shylock was imposed upon maximum possible penalty; his life is spared; but he loses everything else, and is even compelled to turn into a Christian. Shylock would have never forgiven Christians as he is forcibly converted to Christianity, and it is Antonio who demanded this from the judges when he is asked to demand any of his four likings. ANTONIO Shylock, although I neither lend nor borrow By taking nor by giving of excess, Yet, to supply the ripe wants of my friend, I'll break a custom. Is he yet possess'd How much ye would?
There is absolutely no flaw in the construction of the plot of The Merchant of Venice except that there are a few improbabilities in the play, which unfortunately have been taken by certain critics as flaws but which should not be taken as such because we should remember that the material with which any piece of artistic composition is built is bound to have such improbabilities, because in art there is such scope for imagination and in the field of imagination there should be certain improbable things without which how can there be any escape from realities of life? It has been pointed out by certain readers that the first improbability in The Merchant of Venice is the terms of the bond. The very condition of the forfeiture of the bond seems absurd, particularly in the eye of modern law. Then, the conditions of winning Portia as laid down in her father’s will seem also equally fanciful and absurd, because no modern guardian would lay down such conditions, or no modern girl would agree to such conditions for the choice of her husband. Then again the very incident that all the ships of Antonio should be lost in the sea at a particular moment, and all should be brought safe to harbor at another moment, is quite improbable. But of, then if we should consider for a moment, that without any of these improbabilities there could be no play, we shall have to accept them as necessary for the plot. If all the ships were not lost at the crucial moment, how could the malice, greed, cruelty of Shylock be brought forward? Without the peculiar terms of the bond how could there be any scope for the display of Portia’s legal talent? And if there were no such an interesting casket story, how could we come across at such funny characters as the Prince of Morocco and the Prince of Arragon? SHYLOCK There I have another bad match: a bankrupt, a prodigal, who dare scarce show his head on the Rialto; a beggar, that was used to come so smug upon the mart; let him look to his bond: he was wont to call me usurer; let him look to his bond: he was wont to lend money for a Christian courtesy; let him look to his bond.
According to Aristotle a drama should have a beginning, a middle and an end. In The Merchant of Venice in spite of so many stories, we find distinctly the three stages of the evolution of the plot. The opening scene of the play strikes the key-note of the play and introduces us the chief character and also whatever we should know about him. As the story moves on we find how one main story is connected with another main story- the Bond Story with the Caskets Story. In this play we find at least four stories, namely the Bond Story, the Caskets story, the Lorenzo-Jessica story and the Ring episode all of which are most harmoniously blended together so that they produce some unity of effect upon the audience although in the various acts and scenes the interests are divided or scattered. The Bond story, for example, should independently produces a tragic-effect , but then, it is counter balanced by the Ring episode, and that is why, the effect is a comedy. The Caskets-Story should alone produce a romantic effect, but then, it is neutralized considerably by the Bond Story because of the very life of the hero of the play being at stake in the Trial Scene. The Lorenzo-Jessica story independently should help to intensify the romantic scene of the caskets story, but then on the other hand, it helps to intensify the tragic gloom of the Bond-story by intensifying the bitterness of Shylock against Antonio. The Ring-episode alone would have made the whole play a farcical comedy or a burlesque but because of the Bond-story it reduces the farcical element and at the same time, adds to comic amend genial atmosphere of the play.
SALARINO Your mind is tossing on the ocean; There, where your argosies with portly sail, Like signiors and rich burghers on the flood, Or, as it were, the pageants of the sea, Do overpeer the petty traffickers, That curtsy to them, do them reverence, As they fly by them with their woven wings.
The manner in which Shylock is treated in the play shows clearly that Shakespeare wanted either to paint the attitude of the Christians towards the Jews-the attitude of hatred and enmity, or to enlist the sympathy of the audience showing how Shylock has been most unfairly and even illegally robbed of his due penalty of the bond as well as of all his property. Not only that; but Shylock has also been literally outraged being forcibly converted into a Christian particularly when we know that Shylock is an orthodox Jew Christianity. Some of the critics have been misled to think that Shakespeare probably wanted to preach toleration to the Jews through the play. But at, they should know that Shakespeare, being a great artist, could not possibly have any didactic or moral motive behind any of his plays. The inference that we can draw from this play is that the play contains much instruction for us; and part of the instruction is that we should be tolerant and liberal in our religious views, and that we must show due respect to all the religious of the world. The Merchant of Venice is therefore certainly a plea for religious toleration. The playwright conveys the message to us that the evil results from religious intolerance and fanaticism. Shakespeare’s credit particularly with regard to this play lies in the constructions of the plot. In no other play Shakespeare has got so many threads of the plot as he has got here- for stories such as the Bond-Story, the Casket-Story, The Lorenzo-Jessica story, the Ring –Story and even the Launcelot-Gobbo Story, although the last one is not accepted by most critics as any independent story at all. Now, the manner in which Shakespeare interweaves the various stories into one plot is really creditable. While discussing the question of blending the various stories of the play in one of the preceding questions, we have pointed out how through character and incident he weaves all the stories of the main plot and the sub-plot. How cleverly he develops the plot as well as the characters, and what dramatic effect he produces upon the reader and the audience of his masterly art of bleeding the various strands into one story of love with dark as well as silver patches on it. The whole story of The merchant of Venice is the story of Antonio’s love for Bassanio, of the love of Bassanio and Portia for each other, and of the love of Gratiano and Nerissa for each other. Shakespeare never invented the plots of his plays, he always made original use of the material which he borrowed from various sources to construct those plots. Shakespeare gave evidence of his many –sided genius as much as he did in the portrayal of his characters. The construction of the plot in The Merchant of Venice and the interweaving of the various strands, in it, is simply marvelous. This play does not have a single plot. The plot here as in most of his other plays is multiple and complex. But of, neither here nor anywhere else in his drama s is there any confusion or incoherence about his construction of the plot. In this play we find an exquisite summary in the building up of the plot and more than that, we find a close interweaving of the main plot with the sub-plots. The structure of this play is certainly not loose; and we donor agree that the play is lacking in the unity of structure. SHYLOCK [Aside] How like a fawning publican he looks! I hate him for he is a Christian, But more for that in low simplicity He lends out money gratis and brings down The rate of usance here with us in Venice.
Bassanio already owes some money to Antonio, and he now tells Antonio that he would not only repay the first loan as well. Antonio authorizes Bassanio to take a loan from some money-lender in Venice on his name. Thus it is Bassanio’s need for money which compels Antonio to seek a loan from someone. Bassanio is the hero of the Caskets Story, while Antonio is the hero of the Bond Story. The financial need of the hero of the caskets story makes it necessary for the hero of the Bond Story to seek a loan.
NERISSA Do you not remember, lady, in your father's time, a Venetian, a scholar and a soldier, that came hither in company of the Marquis of Montferrat?
The Lorenzo-Jessica under-plot provides one additional motive to Shylock to take his revenge upon the Christian. When Shylock learns that his daughter has run away with a Christian who is a friend of Antonio, and that she has also stolen a lot of his money and jewels, his hostility towards the Christians in general and towards Antonio in particular is deepened. Shylock then becomes even more rigid in demanding his pound of flesh. The Lorenzo-Jessica story is also brought into a close relationship with the caskets story. The two lovers go to Belmont where they are welcomed by Bassanio and where Portia entrusts them with the charge of her house and her property when she is leaving Belmont for Venice. The romantic love-scene between Lorenzo and Jessica in which they refer to several mythological love-affairs, also takes place at Belmont. ANTONIO Commend me to your honourable wife: Tell her the process of Antonio's end; Say how I loved you, speak me fair in death; And, when the tale is told, bid her be judge Whether Bassanio had not once a love. Bassanio needs three thousand ducats in order to equip himself for a trip to Belmont. He wants to go Belmont because the beautiful and rich heiress, Portia whom Bassanio wants to acquire as his wife, is living there. Bassanio had, on a previous occasion, met Portia and had felt charmed by her beauty and her grace. Her wealth imparts to her an additional charm in the eyes of Bassanio who is financially hard up. Bassanio, a prodigal young man has been squandering money and now is in a state of financial stringency. Some instinct in him tells him that he would prove successful in winning Portia as his wife and so he contacts his bosom friend Antonio to borrow money from him. SHYLOCK I had forgot; three months; you told me so. Well then, your bond; and let me see; but hear you; Methought you said you neither lend nor borrow Upon advantage.
The central scene Act III, Scene III, adds to the symmetrical design of the play. This scene is situated exactly in the middle of the play, and it is in this scene that the caskets story reaches its climax, that the crisis in Antonio’s life is reported to Bassanio, and that the rings are given by Portia and Nerissa to their respective husbands. In this central scene the runaway lovers Jessica and Lorenzo, meet Portia, the heroine of the play. JESSICA In such a night Did Thisbe fearfully o'ertrip the dew And saw the lion's shadow ere himself And ran dismay'd away.
When a loan is requested by Antonio, he perceives in Antonio’s request a possibility that he might be able to take his revenge upon the Christian who has always hated him fiercely and has always insulted him. So, after making some fuss about the matter he agrees to lend three thousand ducats to Antonio for a period of three months on the condition that, if Antonio fails to repay the loan within the prescribed period, Shylock would be entitled to cut off a pound of flesh from nearest Antonio’s heart. Antonio agrees to do the same inspite of Bassanio’s objection. So Antonio signs the bond which contains a dangerous clause. It is clear that the Bond Story and the Caskets Story are closely interdependent. If Bassanio had not needed the money to go to Belmont to try to win Portia bas his wife, there would have been no need for Antonio to borrow any money from Shylock and to sign a bond containing dangerous possibilities. Launcelot Gobbo, first the servant of Shylock, then servant of Bassanio also acts a messenger carrying a love-letter from Jessica to Lorenzo, and he indirectly informs Jessica about the marked procession which the Christians including Lorenzo have arranged. He also appears at Belmont. Thus Launcelot makes a fantastic cross-thread in the embroidery of the plot. Launcelot Gobbo thus plays the role of bringing the various strands in this play close to each other. PORTIA Tarry a little; there is something else. This bond doth give thee here no jot of blood; The words expressly are 'a pound of flesh:'
In The Merchant of Venice we also have a minor sub plot or underplot, namely the story of the rings. It is indeed wonderful that Shakespeare has built up this play in such a way that all the stories in it are made inter-dependent, so that none of them can be detached from the others without some damage being done to the play as a whole. Indeed, the interweaving is so close that the different ingredients of the play seem to have been unified into a single, harmonious, and artistic design. There is nothing at all in the play to confuse us or to baffle us or to complicate the design of the play. The Ring episode cannot be regarded as a story like the Lorenzo-Jessica story or any other story in the play. It is, therefore, called a mere Episode or an incident; but then, it has considerable dramatic importance. Had there been no Ring-episode how Portia and Nerissa could be identified as the lawyer and the clerk in the court afterwards? Then again how could there be any fun after the Trial –scene which is so much overcast with tragic gloom, suspense and anxiety? How again could the humorous character of Portia and Nerissa be brought out? How last of all could the love of Bassanio and Gratiano for their wives be tested? The Ring-episode also helps in connecting the Bond-story with the Casket-story, because Antonio and Gratiano, who properly belong to the Bond-story, could not be so intimately connected with Portia and Nerissa, who are the chief figures in the Caskets-story. Of course, Bassanio is the chief connecting link between the Bond –story and the Caskets-story, yet the Ring-episode helps in strengthening the connecting link. BASSANIO Antonio, I am married to a wife Which is as dear to me as life itself; But life itself, my wife, and all the world, Are not with me esteem'd above thy life: I would lose all, ay, sacrifice them all Here to this devil, to deliver you.
The episode contributes the greatest fun to the play. The fun which is available from the Launcelot-Gobbo scene is no better than buffoonery and this kind of fun can be enjoyed only by the groundlings or the lowest class of the audience, whereas the fun of the Ring-episode can be enjoyed by the decent section of the audience because it has more of decent humour than of buffoonery or vulgar humour. Like the trick of disguise, the exchange and presentation of rings is an interesting device to delight the audience particularly at the end of the play. PORTIA Let not that doctor e'er come near my house: Since he hath got the jewel that I loved, And that which you did swear to keep for me, I will become as liberal as you;
The Merchant of Venice contains one main plot and several minor plots. The Bassanio-Portia story forms the major plot and the Nerissa- Gratiano story and the Jessica-Lorenzo story are the subplots. There are some incidents which are connected with these threads of plots. They are-(i) the selection of the casket which leads to the winning of the lady; (ii) ‘the ring’ incident; (iii) ‘the bond’ incident and (iv) the elopement of Jessica ;(v) the Nerissa-Gratiano marriage. BASSANIO Yes, here I tender it for him in the court; Yea, twice the sum: if that will not suffice, I will be bound to pay it ten times o'er, On forfeit of my hands, my head, my heart: If this will not suffice, it must appear That malice bears down truth. For these plots and for these incidents, Shakespeare is believed to be obliged to the following: Gesta Romanoram, II Pecoroni, The Jew of Malta. Shakespeare was not in the habit of inventing plots of his plays. His magnificent rearranged of, the material which he thought of to reappear more magnanimously through his creations appeared to be entirely new and fresh: he beautified what he extracted and thus, made his own anonymous –dramatic-creation – that, more beautiful than the sources from which he, himself wanted to be concurred. This is true of all the plays, and it is true, thus the creation of The Merchant of Venice. Thus, we note that, Shakespeare was obliged to the following sources for the different parts of the plot of The Merchant of Venice, or some episode connected with it: Firstly, Gesta Romanoram, for – Major plot And the Casket –Incident. Secondly, II Pecoroni, for – the Bond- Story, the Disguise Story of Portia, the Ring- Incident, the Nerissa-Gratiano Marriage. Thirdly, The Jew of Malta, for the Jessica- Lorenzo episode. There are some provincial words in ‘The Taming of the Shrew’ as pheeze ‘to drive away’. There are rustical rhymes of Touchstone in ‘As You Like It’ and of the Fool in ‘King Lear’. “In later plays we occasionally find dialect words employed for poetic effect like the expression blood bolter’d in ‘Macbeth’ in the sense of ‘with blood in his matted hair’, in which bolter’d looks like a definitely West Midland word.” Besides these there are dialects of Scots, Irish, and Welsh soldiers of the English army in ‘Henry V’. Among the dialect words used by Shakespeare the West Midland word ‘dwindle’ in the phrase ‘dwindle, peak and pine’ is very commonly used both in the literary and spoken languages. Gesta Romanoram: for the major plot and for the ‘casket’ episode Shakespeare is believed to be obliged to this book. This book is in Latin, but it was translated into English in 1577 and there is no doubt that Shakespeare read the English translation of this Latin book. In this book it is mentioned that a king of Naples was at war with a Roman Emperor. In order to establish friendly relations between them, the king of Naples suggested that his daughter should be married to the son of the Roman Emperor. The suggestion was accepted, but in order to test the sincerity of her faith, she was asked to make a selection of the right casket, from among three caskets of gold, silver and lead. She makes the correct selection and gets the son of the Roman Emperor as her husband. For the major plot and the Casket’ episode, Shakespeare thus seems to have obliged to Gesta Romanoram. PORTIA The quality of mercy is not strain'd, It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven Upon the place beneath: it is twice blest; It blesseth him that gives and him that takes: 'Tis mightiest in the mightiest: it becomes The throned monarch better than his crown;
II Pecoroni: it was a collection of stories in Italian and was written by one Giovanni in 1558. It is believed that Shakespeare has read an English translation of the book; or he might even have read it in Italian. One story in this book bears several points of similarity with some episodes and incidents in The Merchant of Venice. We learn here that a man borrows money from his friend who borrows it from a money-lending Jew on conditions which are similar to those on which Antonio borrows money from the rich money-lending Jew, Shylock. The friend is not able to pay back the loan within the specified time, so the Jew demands the penalty which is one pound of flesh to be cut off from the body of the friend. The friend however, is saved by the lady who goes to the court in the disguise of a lawyer as Portia does in this play. We have the ‘ring’ incident also in the story in much the same way as in The Merchant of Venice; and we have in this story the marriage of a maid of the lady with a companion of the bridegroom who marries the lady. Thus, for the bond-incident, the ring-incident and for the Nerissa-Gratiano marriage, Shakespeare seems to be obliged to II Pecoroni. GRATIANO O, be thou damn'd, inexecrable dog! And for thy life let justice be accused. Thou almost makest me waver in my faith To hold opinion with Pythagoras, That souls of animals infuse themselves Into the trunks of men: Shakespeare does not always care for grammatical parallelism. He does not always place the words where they would seem properly to belong. Placing of the negative before the verb, use of double negatives, use of double comparatives or superlatives, omission of the definite article where we customarily put it or use of prepositions quite different from modern times are the boldness of his sentence-structure. It is one of a greatest ease that Shakespeare could use one part of speech as another- a thing which has not been before or since e.g.- noun used as a verb, noun as an adjective, adjective as a verb, adjective as an adverb, preposition as an adjective, pronoun as a noun, adverb as an adjective, or adverb as a noun. Shakespeare uses a few archaic words, but in doing so he makes fun of the archaizing tendency of his time as the word ‘wight’ in ‘Merry Wives of Windsor’. In a number of passages the archaic ‘eyne’ for ‘eyes’ is used for the sake of rhyme or for comic effect- “As an experimenter with the dramatic use of dialect for local colouring Shakespeare was remarkable,; and in so doing he made some permanent contributions to the English language.” PORTIA If I could bid the fifth welcome with so good a heart as I can bid the other four farewell, I should be glad of his approach: if he have the condition of a saint and the complexion of a devil, I had rather he should shrive me than wive me. Come, Nerissa. Sirrah, go before.
The Jew of Malta: this was a play written by Marlowe and it was presented in1590. Here we note that the daughter of the Jew falls in love with a Christian young man; and runs away with him. For Jessica-Lorenzo plot Shakespeare seems to be obliged to this play of Marlowe. Shakespeare uses great number of words which were new in his times. An immense number of words are first recorded in Shakespeare. But of, it does not necessarily mean that he invented them, but it merely means that while they were living colloquially on the lips of the people, he gave literary currency to them and used them in a new sense or formed fresh derivatives and compounds from them and used them for dramatic purposes. In the opinion of Jespersen, these new words bear also the stamp of Shakespeare’s boldness. Among the words first recorded in his plays are the following- astant (as a preposition), assassination; barefaced; call (pay a short visit); courtship; eventful; fretful; fount (spring); atomy; weird; bourne, etc. besides, these new words Shakespeare boldly formed the following verbs from nouns which were in existence before Shakespeare’s time: bound, hand, jade; and then nouns from verbs like control, down, dress, hatch, import, indent. GRATIANO Let it be so: the first inter'gatory That my Nerissa shall be sworn on is, Whether till the next night she had rather stay, Or go to bed now, being two hours to day: But were the day come, I should wish it dark, That I were couching with the doctor's clerk. Well, while I live I'll fear no other thing So sore as keeping safe Nerissa's ring.
In the first place Shakespeare’s boldness lies in drawing pictures which tend to partake of magnificent quality and which are not of the obvious kind. The metaphors and similies that he employs at once strike the reader’s imagination as something striking and unconventional. Shakespeare was intensely interested in and observant of everyday concrete things and events, especially in outdoor country life and homely indoor routine, and his senses were abnormally acute and responsive. It is on these concrete things that Shakespeare draws his bold, rich and varied imageries-such boldness being scarecely found in other poets. There are numerous examples of such bold metaphors which are to be found in his plays. It is more in the making of new compounds and the new words he formed by adding affixes that Shakespeare can be looked upon properly as an individual contributor to the making of Modern English- a number of new words formed by adding the French original prefix ‘en’ (or ‘em’): enact, enchafed (excited), endeared( increase in vale), engirt, enkindle, enroosted, embattle (draw up in order of battle), etc. again, new compound made with the prefix ‘un’: unavoided (inevitable), unvalued (precious), unless, unbody, unfathered, unfellowed(without an equal), ungot (unborn), unhair, unkiss, unroosted (ousted from one’s place); unexpressive (inexpressible); uncharged, etc. Sometimes even of geniousity new effective poetic compounds often made by joining one adjective with another, like- daring-hardy, happy-valiant, etc. PORTIA No more, I pray thee: I am half afeard Thou wilt say anon he is some kin to thee, Thou spend'st such high-day wit in praising him. Come, come, Nerissa; for I long to see Quick Cupid's post that comes so mannerly.
One Shakespearean phrase ‘to out-Herod Herod’ has not only become current in its original form but has become the model after which a large number of other expressions have been formed, e.g. ‘to out-Bentley Bentley’, ‘to out-Miton Miton’, ‘to out- Darwin Darwin.’ Shakespeare seems in truth to have had a curious fondness for the invention of compound verbs with ‘out’, expressing the notion of surpassing or exceeding. This kind of expressing in Modern English is due to the direct influence of Shakespeare. It is now more of a literary phrase than when Shakespeare put it in the mouth of the grave-digger in ‘Hamlet’. In Shakespeare’s language the word meant ‘beat with a stick’, but in Modern English, the phrase has come to mean ‘to think hard on a problem’. From a light sense it has come to be used in a serious vein. Inversely, this phrase was used by Shakespeare in a serious vein in ‘A Mid Summer Night’s Dream’ where it carries the sense that the married state is to be preferred to the single. But of, it is now generally used with an ironical or humorous tinge. There was no such ironical sense in Shakespeare. The most startling example is this phrase in a passage in ‘Othello’ where it means ‘experience previously undergone’; for a fairly common sense of ‘conclusion’ was then ‘experiment’ or ‘experience’, which meaning does survive in the Shakespearean phrase ‘to try conclusions’ (Hamlet, III. IV, 195) where the phrase means to ‘make an experiment’. But at, in Modern English the phrase is commonly misapplied, and means ‘an inevitable result’, ‘something about which doubt is impossible’. As employed by Hamlet (I. V. 15) the phrase refers, to the Danish custom of very heavy drinking upon which he comments that the custom would ‘more honourably be broken than observed’. It means that ‘it would be more honourable for it to be neglected instead of observed’. The sense implied is that ‘the custom should be more broken than observed’. But of, the phrase is now commonly misapplied. When we say now that ‘the rule is more honored in the breach than the observance’, it means that ‘the rule is more broke than observed’. The sense implied that ‘the rule should be more observed than broken’. JESSICA Past all expressing. It is very meet The Lord Bassanio live an upright life; For, having such a blessing in his lady, He finds the joys of heaven here on earth;
The Trial Scene, by universal consent, is one of the greatest pieces of a dramatic art in all literature. Here everything centres on the struggles between Shylock and Portia: the obstinate vindictiveness of the Jew matched against the eloquence and knowledge of the supposed lawyer. The dramatic interest rises as Portia enters and appears to give way before Shylock’s determined stand upon strictly legality, until victory and vengeance upon his enemy are in the very grasp of the Jew. Then by a stroke of high dramatic genius, the tables are suddenly turned and the Jew begins to discover himself, entrapped within the meshes of the very laws he had invoked and to find himself loaded with penalties. It is the triumph of the lofty mind working for the higher justice over the keen but narrower intellect seeking wrong under the cover of legal right. In the trial scene it is a duel to the very death between Shylock’s devilish cunning and lust for revenge and Portia’s splendid intellect and capacity. In this scene, Shakespeare uses many legal terms and employs them with grant precision and correctness. This legal knowledge Shakespeare has displayed through Portia. Her conduct of the case in the court of the Duke of Venice is a masterpiece in the art of drawing from mouth of a person his own condemnation. Her eloquent appeal to Shylock to the merciful is designed to bring out the fact that in his mad passion of revenge. Shylock has shut out from his heart every tender human consideration. Her appeal to his cupidity by offering him three times the value of his bond is designed to show that it is the life of Antonio and not the money which Shylock is bent on getting. Her first decree that the bond is valid and her apparent pronouncement of judgement in favour of the Jew elicit the fact that it was with an almost diabolical zest that Shylock proceeded to the business of preparing to cut off the pound of flesh. It shows first, that in no circumstances will he have anything but the trip letter of the law and secondly, that it was his definite intention and purpose that Antonio should die as a result of the operation which would remove a pound of his flesh. In other words, it is established beyond doubt that Shylock was planning to commit a deliberate premeditated murder. In turning the tables on Shylock, Portia is careful to give him exactly the justice he craved for. He is not denied his pound of flesh but he can take nothing more than this. If he sheds a drop of blood he will violate the letter of the law and he cannot afterwards complain of the penalty that he will have to pay for this, for he will have been judged by the criterion which he himself has so stubbornly stood by. SALANIO I would she were as lying a gossip in that as ever knapped ginger or made her neighbours believe she wept for the death of a third husband. But it is true, without any slips of prolixity or crossing the plain highway of talk, that the good Antonio, the honest Antonio,--O that I had a title good enough to keep his name company!—
Out of hatred Shylock had tried to lay a trap for Antonio; and when was asked, Shylock replied that he would use the flesh of Antonio as bait to catch fish. It is clear that his demand of flesh was nothing but to take a revenge on Antonio and, thus to put an end to his life. His hatred towards Antonio was too fierce to give any importance to Portia’s appeal to be “merciful” and “to take thrice” his money. He still insists on a pound of flesh; has even arranged for the scales to weight the flesh. When Shylock was requested by the judge to arrange for a surgeon to stop Antonio’s wounds, Shylock refuses to do so on the ground that the bond does not provide for a surgeon. Some scholars opine that Portia’s interpretation of the bond is a mere quibbling on words. According to them the cutting of the flesh from a man’s body necessarily involves the shedding of blood. She makes in this way impossible for Shylock to cut off any flesh from Antonio’s body. She also says that he must cut off an exact pound of flesh neither a jot more, nor a jot less. This too is something impossible. These scholars also think that Portia has gone out of her way to save Antonio’s life; and that she had made a mockery of justice. She has certainly saved Antonio’s life but she has done so by twisting and distorting the law and by doing an injustice to Shylock. The Jew would like to give up all his claims and go home; but Portia tells him that the law has yet another hold upon him and then the Christian play havoc with Shylock, especially when force him to become a Christian. Shylock has to pay to the court of law the penalties and he is paying them all under orders to the court of law; and as such, with all his sufferings he cannot be regarded as a martyr to the Jewish race. But at, when we consider that all these penalties have been awarded to Shylock by the court which consists of all Christians including that all these punishments Shylock has to bear simply because he has demanded the forfeiture of the bond against a Christian, then surely Shylock suffers all these penalties as a Jew and in the hands of the Christians and for the sake of a Christian. SALARINO Why, yet it lives there uncheck'd that Antonio hath a ship of rich lading wrecked on the narrow seas; the Goodwins, I think they call the place; a very dangerous flat and fatal, where the carcasses of many a tall ship lie buried, as they say, if my gossip Report be an honest woman of her word.
According to the terms of the Bond, Shylock would be entitled to cut off a pound of flesh from any part of Antonio’s body he might like in case Antonio failed to repay the loan of three thousand ducats within a period of three months. Nobody had ever before heard of such a bond. The bond obviously spelt much danger to Antonio’s life though it did not, at the time, seem likely that Antonio would suffer such heavy losses on the seas as to be rendered bankrupt and incapable of repaying the loan. Bassanio had objected Antonio’s to sign the bond, but Antonio had silenced Bassanio by saying that, much before the expiry of the period of three months, he should be receiving the several times the amount of the loan and would, therefore be able to repay it in time. Shylock himself had said that it was a merry bond and that he would gain nothing by getting a pound of Antonio’s flesh if Antonio failed to repay the loan. Shylock had even said that a pound of human flesh was not as estimable or profitable as a pound of mutton or beef. Thus had tried to assure Antonio and Bassanio that he was not really serious about the condition laid down in the bond. Without ant intension to hurt the feelings of the advisers and devotees of Shakespeare, it may be said that Portia’s administration of justice in the Trial Scene is as absurd as the bond which Shylock prevailed upon Antonio to sign. ANTONIO I pray you, think you question with the Jew: You may as well go stand upon the beach And bid the main flood bate his usual height; You may as well use question with the wolf Why he hath made the ewe bleat for the lamb; When we go to judge the legal position of Portia in the law court of Venice in the present play, we should remember the context of the Roman law and also the standard of jurisprudence of the middle ages to which the theme of the play belongs. If we go to judge the arguments of Portia or even the terms of the bond between Antonio and Shylock by any standard of modern law or of modern civilization, we shall be doing a great injustice to the decrees passed by the Duke or by Portia in the Court of Venice in connection with the case of Antonio and Shylock. ANTONIO Sweet lady, you have given me life and living; For here I read for certain that my ships Are safely come to road.
Portia quotes the law of Venice in the open court if any foreigner is found out to conspire against the life of any Venetian, his life would be at the mercy of the Duke of Venice, and that the half the property of the conspiration would go to the government, while the other half would go to the person against whose life the conspiracy is made. So far it is perfectly right. But of, when on Antonio’s suggestion the court orders for the execution of a will of the entire property of Shylock at the time of his death in favour of Jessica and Lorenzo who have also robbed him of all his precious jewels, and also to order for the conversion of Shylock to Christianity, was it according to any law of Venice or according to any sense of justice? BASSANIO Thou speak'st it well. Go, father, with thy son. Take leave of thy old master and inquire My lodging out. Give him a livery More guarded than his fellows': see it done.
The peculiar terms of the bond may strike as illegal in the eyes of modern jurisprudence; but then we should know that Roman law of the Middle Ages used to lay stress upon the letter of the law and not so much upon the interpretation or justice of law. Naturally, the pound of human flesh as the forfeiture of the bond is not a very unusual condition of the bond. If we regard the terms of the bond as valued, we should regard also the interpretations and arguments of Portia as equally valid. Now because Shylock, has been insisting on the fulfillment of the letter of the law while demanding rightfully a pound of flesh from Antonio’s bosom, so Portia also is equally justified in warning Shylock that he has no right either to shed a single drop of blood while cutting the flesh or to cut the flesh either more or less even by a grain. Portia must be unquestionably right when she quotes from Venetian laws the punishments and the fines for conspiring against the life of a person. There is another weak point in the position of Shylock, namely that Shylock while executing the bond with Antonio assured him that the forfeiture of the bond was mentioned only as a merry sport, but while demanding the forfeiture in the court he does not confess it. Therefore, Shylock’s position is false, while Portia’s position is perfectly right. The only false position of the court of the Duke of Venice is the decree on the suggestion of Antonio that Shylock should be converted to a Christian or that half of his property instead of going to Antonio, according to law, should go to Lorenzo and Jessica who have robbed him of his gold and jewel. SHYLOCK Yes, to smell pork; to eat of the habitation which your prophet the Nazarite conjured the devil into. I will buy with you, sell with you, talk with you, walk with you, and so following, but I will not eat with you, drink with you, nor pray with you. What news on the Rialto? Anyway, Portia’s judgement is acceptable to us because through her judgement she thwarts Shylock’s evil design; though we do not fully approve of the severe punishment which is inflicted upon Shylock after he has been convicted of having tried to take the life of a Venetian citizen. SHYLOCK I understand moreover, upon the Rialto, he hath a third at Mexico, a fourth for England, and other ventures he hath, squandered abroad. Portia in the Trial Scene, gives Shylock every chance to escape from the punishment to which he would become liable if she feels compelled to pronounce the judgement which she has already decided upon and planned for the rescue of Antonio from his clutches. She tempts Shylock with offer of money, but fails in her effort. She appeals to him to show mercy to Antonio; but here too she fails. Indeed her “Quality of Mercy” speech would have moved the stoniest of hearts that she gives a strictly literal interpretation of the bond in order to save an innocent man. It is her ingenuity that saves Antonio’s life, we cannot help feeling that she allows the Christians to impose upon Shylock the maximum punishment which is permissible under the law though they certainly spare his life. We would have admired her even more if she had allowed Shylock to withdraw from the court when he says that he is willing to wash his hands of the whole affair, and would no longer stay to discuss the matter. But of, she stops him, saying that the law has yet another hold upon him, and it is at this point that Christians treat the Jew with nearly the same cruelty with which he had wanted to treat Antonio. NERISSA Ay, and I'll give them him without a fee. There do I give to you and Jessica, From the rich Jew, a special deed of gift, After his death, of all he dies possess'd of.
The play The Merchant of Venice consists of the Bond story and the caskets story. Each of this stories has its own interest, appeal and dramatic value, in the design of the play as a whole. Both these two stories are separate but they have been closely interwoven and constitutes an integral part to the total design of the play. So the Bond Story and Casket Story are inseparable and the play will become defective if either of them is removed.
PORTIA God made him, and therefore let him pass for a man. In truth, I know it is a sin to be a mocker: The three main characters Antonio, Bassanio and Shylock are present in the Bond Story. Portia’s importance cannot be overlooked or ignored because she is the judge who conducts the trial of Antonio on the basis of Shylock’s suit against him the main characters in the caskets story are Bassanio and Portia. Without either of them, the caskets story cannot exist because without the successful suitor, the issue of Portia’s marriage would remain inconclusive. If Portia had not get married to Bassanio, she would not have gone to Venice to act as the judge in Shylock’s case against Antonio. PORTIA I pray thee, over-name them; and as thou namest them, I will describe them; and, according to my description, level at my affection.
At the court of the Venetian Duke, where the disguised Portia manages the case so skillfully, the tables are turned on Shylock worth a vengeance, there is a final and complete linking up of the two stories of which the plot is composed. It is because he has signed the bond to Shylock that Antonio’s life is in danger at the hands of the Jew. It was because of Bassanio , needed the money to equip himself for his love mission to Belmont that Antonio had signed the bond. The Choice of the right casket gave Bassanio the fruition of his love with Portia but it was the falling due of the bond and Shylock’s demand for the pound of flesh that threatened to turn this fruit to ashes. It was because his daughter had eloped with a Christian friend of Antonio’s that Shylock was relentless in his demand for the pound of flesh. It was because of Gratiano’s close connection with Bassanio and Nerissa’s close connection with Portia that the fortunes of this pair of lovers depended entirely on what befall their principles. Finally, it was her lover for Bassanio and her extremist means in her endeavour to secure the release of Antonio from the danger into which he had gone to promote the cause of the love of Bassanio, who alone benefits by Antonio’s release. SALARINO Why, yet it lives there uncheck'd that Antonio hath a ship of rich lading wrecked on the narrow seas; the Goodwins, I think they call the place; a very dangerous flat and fatal, where the carcasses of many a tall ship lie buried, as they say, if my gossip Report be an honest woman of her word.
Bassanio is in love with the fair heiress of Belmont, and there is no questions of Portia’s being equally in love with him from the time she first set eyes on him. But at, there are two major difficulties to be overcome. The first of these in that the high born and culturally refined, but none the less extravagant Bassanio should find the wherewithal to equip himself suitably for his love mission to Belmont. The second difficulty is that Portia is hedged in by the terms of her father’s will: she may not reject any suitor who does not please her, nor may she exercise her own unfettered choice in respect of that suitor who pleases her. She may marry only the man who chooses the one of the three caskets which contains her portrait locked within it. BASSANIO
O my Antonio, had I but the means To hold a rival place with one of them, I have a mind presages me such thrift, That I should questionless be fortunate!
One of the futilities of Shakespearean criticism is the discussion of the question as to whether the bond story or the casket story is the main story of The Merchant of Venice. This play is constructed on principles similar to those which Shakespeare employs in the construction of his other comedies. Through the exercise of the brilliant qualities of mind and of heart of the heroine these difficulties are overcome and happy result ensues. But at, in the course of the development of the story, other issues arise, and these are also brought to a happy consummation because of the fact that the heroine’s exerting on her own behalf and on behalf of her lover are far from selfish as they spread over the wide circle in which she can bring all her active lovable characteristic into play. The two main stories- the bond story and the caskets story so artistically worked together that they resolve themselves into one story. “Shakespeare does not enforce a moral in this play-his judgement is implicit only- but as the action ends in laughter and affection at Belmont we know that each couple in their own way, have found love’s wealth. We know too that their happiness is not all that we would wish; as they make free with Shylock’s commercial wealth, we remember that they lacked the full measure of charity towards one who, through his hatred and possessiveness, had got his choice of that which he deserved.” John Russel Brown: Shakespeare’s Ideal of Love’s Wealth. PORTIA If to do were as easy as to know what were good to do, chapels had been churches and poor men's cottages princes' palaces. Music, says Lorenzo, has an irresistible appeal even for beasts. That is why, according to a Greek myth, Orpheus is said to have drawn trees, stones and rivers towards himself by the bewitching music of his flute. Music has the power to soften even hard, cruel and fiery natures, at least for the time being. The man who can neither produce music himself nor is charmed by music has much evil in him and is capable of treachery, deception and other crimes. Such a man is dull as dark as hell (Erebus) and he is untrustworthy. Bassanio’s monetary difficulties are met by the handsome way in which his friend Antonio places his credit at Bassanio’s disposal. The ready money is found the shape of a loan from the Jew, Shylock but in granting this loan he causes a clause to be inserted in the bond which he takes from Antonio, to the effect that if loan is not discharged within the stipulated period of three months, Antonio will pay a forfeit of a pound of his flesh to the Jew. It is thus that the bond story is set in motion. It arises immediately and directly out of the love story, and as we shall see later, while it promotes the auspicious development of the love story at this stage, its subsequent development creates a new complication which is resolved by the bringing into action of all the high spiritedness and intellectual resourcefulness of the heroine. DUKE I am sorry for thee: thou art come to answer A stony adversary, an inhuman wretch uncapable of pity, void and empty From any dram of mercy.
But of, before Portia and Bassanio can lay claims to one another, the problem of the choice of the caskets has to be solved. Bassanio is not the only suitor in the field. At least two others of the many suitors of the Portia venture on the choice. Both fail because they do not “rightly” love, and it is precisely because Bassanio has a true concept of love that he succeeds when he exercises his right of choice. ANTONIO You know me well, and herein spend but time To wind about my love with circumstance; And out of doubt you do me now more wrong In making question of my uttermost Than if you had made waste of all I have:
Antonio can be saved only through an ingenious interpretation of the bond and that is done by a woman of great intellect who is no other than Portia. The manner, in which Shakespeare has interwoven the various stories into one plot is really creditable. While discussing the question of blending the various stories of the play is one of the preceding questions, we have pointed out how through character and incident he weaves all the stories of the main plot and the subplot, how cleverly he develops the plot as well as the characters, and what dramatic effect he produces upon the reader and audience by his masterly art of blending the various strands into one story of love with dark as well as silver patches on it. The whole story of The Merchant of Venice, is the story of Antonio’s love for Bassanio, of the love of Bassanio and Portia for each other. PORTIA That he hath a neighbourly charity in him, for he borrowed a box of the ear of the Englishman and swore he would pay him again when he was able: I think the Frenchman became his surety and sealed under for another.
The story works out quite naturally and is made an almost integral part of the love story and its two main constituent p[arts- the bond story and the casket story. It is when, Bassanio chooses the right casket and thus establishes his claim to Portia’s hand that she gives because the disguised Portia has secured Antonio’s release from the danger into which he had fallen by signing the bond that she asks Bassanio for the ring as a keepsake. It is because Antonio feels that he owes an endless debt of gratitude to the lawyer that he urges Bassanio to send the ring after him. Finally, it is through Portia’s and Nerissa’s producing the rings at Belmont that it becomes known that they were the lawyer and his clerk respectively. Thus, the two stories are not only mutually inter-dependant but inseparable. The whole story will be collapsed if one is removed. BASSANIO To you, Antonio, I owe the most, in money and in love, And from your love I have a warranty To unburden all my plots and purposes How to get clear of all the debts I owe.
But at, the transport of joy of the newly betrothed couples are at their height when Salarino, accompanied by Lorenzo and Jessica, arrives from Venice with the heart-rending tidings that all Antonio’s ships have been lost at sea, that the bond to the Jew has become forfeit, and that Shylock, is relentless in his demand for the pound of Antonio’s flesh. It is thus at the very moment when every obstacle in the path of the lovers appears to have been swept away that a circumstance which is not new but which had been inherent in the action almost from the outset, arises to threaten the complete wrecking of the joy which the lovers had promised themselves would last for ever. PORTIA O me, the word 'choose!' I may neither choose whom I would nor refuse whom I dislike; so is the will of a living daughter curbed by the will of a dead father. Is it not hard, Nerissa, that I cannot choose one nor refuse none?
Bassanio must go to Belmont to complete the casket story and Antonio has to sign the bond if money to finance Bassanio’s visit to Belmont is to be obtained. The money is obtained from the Jewish money lender who has always hated Antonio and who secretly seeks revenge and therefore suggests the clause about the pound of flesh. A comedy is generally defined as play where the characters and their follies and discomfitures entertain us, where no great disaster happens to any of the characters and the play ends in a happy note as the main characters achieve what they aspire for. The play ends in a happy note as the main characters achieve what they aspire for. The play is written and performed in such a way that the audience or readers pleasurably engage themselves while watching or reading the play. Though comedy’s chief aim is to amuse the readers, but there is another function that is usually associated with comedy- to correct the vices of people. Comedy is supposed to work as a medicine on the audience as they get to know their follies and vices and can correct themselves before any disaster mars their life. LORENZO My Lord Bassanio, since you have found Antonio, We two will leave you: but at dinner-time, I pray you, have in mind where we must meet.
Inspired also from Prem Joshua’s Flute played at Tuscany, Italy, and “Mevlana”, Amsterdam, Holland & India, Except complete-setting, complete-analytics, setting of speakers’ quotes and a minor change from original references, followed the words and sentences from the reference of original text Dr. S.Sen, Book on Philology, Oxford Edition of the drama, and the Workbooks including, on History of English Literature, along with Original book on Bengali poems of MICHAEL MADHUSUDAN DUTT, and the work of original text of the play from Web, with other necessary information about the Bengali-poet. - Rituparna Ray Chaudhuri.
That time of year thou mayst in me behold When yellow leaves or none or few do hang Upon those boughs which shake against the cold, Bare ruined choirs where late sweet birds sang………. (!) [Melancholy, 73]
Any great writer or dramatist’s greatness to some extent lays in the way the common themes in an uncommon way or different language is presented through. William Shakespeare is no different. He took up themes and situations in his plays which are very popular at his times and treated them in such a manner and presented them in such rhetorical language, I admit, that the common became special and sublime-It is not that Shakespeare had fit patterns of using language in his plays. He experimented with it and whatever he found suitable for the characters, for the occasion, for the actors, for the audience, he used the language accordingly. Whereas majority of his plays are written in blank verse, but in many plays we see a considerable use of prose. Shakespeare strikes here too a balance between prose and verse which was needed for the dramatic purpose. : Follow up with a personal view from a Reference- Workbook.
(Rituparna Ray Chaudhuri).
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– — ° ′ ″ ≈ ≠ ≤ ≥ ± − × ÷ ← → · § Rituparna Ray Chaudhuri (talk) 16:15, 24 July 2014 (UTC) Cite error: There are<ref>tags on this page without content in them (see the help page). Cite error: The opening<ref>tag is malformed or has a bad name (see the help page).
I HAVENOT WRITTEN ON ANY ARTICLE. IT RIGHT TO SAY MINE IS OF ESSAY-SORT ONLY OR INFACT AN ESSAY ONLY.
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Instructions ⋈ How does Act I Scene I set mood of the play 'The Merchant of Venice' throughout? (talk: + bio) (log) · Move: To project space · Run Reflinks · Run Citation Bot · Search: Google, Bing, WP · Submitted 2 seconds ago by Rituparna Ray Chaudhuri (talk: H D +) · Last edited 1 second ago by Rituparna Ray Chaudhuri
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Instructions ⋈ How does Act I Scene I set mood of the play 'The Merchant of Venice' throughout?
(talk: + bio) (log) · Move: To project space · Run Reflinks · Run Citation Bot · Search: Google, Bing, WP · Submitted 2 seconds ago
by Rituparna Ray Chaudhuri (talk: H D +) · Last edited 1 second ago
by Rituparna Ray Chaudhuri
Rituparna Ray Chaudhuri (talk) 07:22, 20 May 2013 (UTC)
--Rituparna Ray Chaudhuri (talk) 07:22, 20 May 2013 (UTC)
Shall we call Macbeth a tragic hero? what is the relation between Macbeth,a materialistic being and Witches of Supernatural World? how far Lady Macbeth treated to be of her Husband? Why Shakespeare used the term witch to both man,Macbeth and the woman character,Lady Macbeth?how far destiny can play a role to a human's declination throughout the play? what can be the per-line importance of the opening scene of Macbeth? Shall we respect Lady Macbeth on the other hand? why Shakespeare exactly deviated from the main history in writing his play Macbeth? Fife is the beginning and the Thane of Fife came to forefront at later and saved Scotland-How far do you agree? Do the Witches always been noted along with the protagonist and atmosphere of the play? Who is The porter on other hand and the Witches respectively in the play?What is the importance of Ghost and how far it succeeded in relation to the play?