User:RameyEA/sandbox

Week One

Hi Everyone!

Week Two

Article Evaluation: Cephalochordate

• The introductory section is a bit wordy and crams too much unexplained information in
• Introductory section could be slimmed down and written more concisely/clearly
• Taxonomic section looks dull and sparse. Maybe it needs a picture/diagram?
• Feeding section is also crammed full of info that is not explained
• A morphology section is needed before the feeding section. It should include a labeled diagram of the creature and lay out what the basic structures are.
• Adding a morphology section would clear up several of the confusing points in the feeding section, and would allow for a clearer rewrite of that section
• A development section is also needed to explain the significance of certain classifications based on the larval state
• Several more, and clearly explained pictures need to be included - at least one per section, clearly labeled, and color coded
• The Phylogeny section includes very little explanation of the figure or the significance of it
• Fossils are mentioned in the introductory paragraph but do not appear in the article - so lets do a little research and find out what the deal is with the fossils
• Wording, especially in the feeding section, gets pretty confusing and is not very user friendly
• Introduction includes several mentions of things that are not later explained, besides the fossil situation - lancelets are mentioned as the "modern day" version, they are dioecious, and scattered mention of their anatomy - these should be explained later on if they are going to show up in the introduction
• This page is part of WikiProjects for both Animals and Marine life
• It has also had at least two other student editors
• References are relevant, but few and do no begin until the third paragraph despite clear claims being made

Week Three

Article Addition: Cephalochordate

Morphology Proposal - Posted to Cephalochordate Talk Page

A morphology section is needed before the feeding section. It should include a labeled diagram of the creature and lay out what the basic structures are.This would clear up several of the confusing points in the feeding section, and would allow for a clearer rewrite of that section. The Amphioxus page is much more robust than the Cephalochordate page and would be a useful reference for morphology specifically. I plan to create a basic morphology section that includes basic development and explains the significance (also in a figure) of the five major synapomorphies that classify Cephalochordates as chordates. The figure will show the five synapomorphies in color. The paragraph will be somewhat brief and focus primarily on what make a Cephalochordate a chordate but not a vertebrate. It will mention the Amphioxus as a living example, linking to that page for more information regarding the specifics of anatomy and lifestyle.

Week Four

Project Proposal

First choice: Pigeon

I would like to do work on the pigeon because I am fascinated by natural flight and would like to see in dissection the unique features that enable and enhance flight.

Feral pigeon, Domestic pigeon, Homing pigeon

Each of these pages could use an expanded and visually detailed morphology section, as well as some type editing.

Schutz comments: You may want to consider the general bird anatomy page and how it applies

Second choice: Iguana

The iguana would be interesting to study because it is "cold-blooded", and I am not as familiar with ectothermic animals, as with endothermic ones. Also I just realized that they are strictly herbivores when reading through the articles.

Iguana, Green iguana, Lesser Antillean iguana

Each of these pages could use an expanded and visually detailed morphology section, as well as some type editing.

Third choice: Rabbit

The rabbit is interesting to me because it is a mammal that is usually able to survive pretty cold temperatures for it's small size.

Cottontail rabbit, Rabbit, Leporidae

There is room in these articles for type editing and in the cases of the cottontail and Leporidae pages, morphology could be added to or improved upon.

Week Five

Pigeon Group Editing Project

Gameplan

Columbidae:

• Edit Description section of the page by creating separate subsections, including one on anatomy
• The anatomy would include basic bird anatomy structures and some features specific to pigeons
• It would also link to the Bird anatomy page
• Add subsection in Description about the flight feathers and agility

Bird anatomy:

• Expand muscular section and add descriptive images and references
• Expand circulatory section and add descriptive images and references

See also edits:

• Domestic pigeon
• Homing pigeon
• Feral pigeon
• Add links to Bird anatomy and Columbidae pages

Scholarly Articles

Columbidae Edits:

• Skeletal and muscular systems in flapping flight: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6205952/
• Skeletal evolution and diversity: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jmor.1052260104
• Fine motor control: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jmor.1052260104
• Flight Feathers: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/joa.12511
• Notes: look at the wing loading: the ratio of body weight to wing area-if they have a low wing loading, they are great fliers because they have good lift-if they have a high wing loading, they are not great fliers and can't generate left very well (i.e. chickens). Also look at aspect ratio of the wings: the ratio of wing length to wing width. A high aspect ratio is a bird with long and skinny wings, and a low aspect ratio is a bird with equally/close to equal length and width wings. High aspect ratio wings are good for soaring and greater lift and less energy trying to fly, but the bird cannot maneuver very well and cannot take off very fast to avoid predators because it takes more time to generate lift. Low aspect ratio wings allow the bird to get off the ground fast because they can generate lift quickly and they are more maneuverable, but its energetically expensive because they cannot generate as much lift as efficiently as a high aspect ratio wing.

Bird anatomy Edits:

Possible edits for bird anatomy page to circulatory system:

• birds have a heart generally larger than mammals in comparison with body size. Smaller birds also tend to have bigger hearts in reference to body size compared to bigger birds, due to the fact that smaller birds have higher metabolic rates
• birds have an overall more efficient heart than mammals, beating slower as well and pumping more blood with each beat due to the large ventricles with more muscle fibers, allowing it to fill and empty more completely than most mammalian hearts. They also have thin muscle fibers in the heart with many mitochondria and a high amount of vascularization, allowing for diffusion of oxygen to be more efficient since the oxygen can diffuse over a shorter distance thanks to the thin muscle fibers.
• the avian cardiac system responds very quickly to changes in level of activity by changes in heart rate, cardiac output, and by vasodilation and vasoconstriciton if the blood vessels

Edits to the muscular system include:

Expanding on the description of muscles used for flight: http://www.senckenberg.de/files/content/forschung/publikationen/vertebratezoology/vz68-2/06_vertebrate_zoology_68_2_picasso-mosto_177-190.pdf

https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rstb.2015.0383

Razmadze, Daria; Panyutina, Aleksandra A; Zelenkov, Nikita V. "Anatomy of the forelimb musculature and ligaments of Psittacus erithacus (Aves: Psittaciformes)" Journal of Anatomy, vol 223, no. 4, Cot 2018, pp 496-530.

Expanding on general muscular anatomy of birds:

Still looking for sources

May use textbook some but not exclusively

Section on avian circulatory system:

Birds have a four-chambered heart, in common with mammals, and some reptiles (mainly the crocodilia). This adaptation allows for an efficient nutrient and oxygen transport throughout the body, providing birds with energy to fly and maintain high levels of activity. A ruby-throated hummingbird's heart beats up to 1200 times per minute (about 20 beats per second).

O'Malley, Bairbre. “Clinical Anatomy and Physiology of Avian Species--From Bird Brains to Pigeon Toes - WSAVA2008 - VIN.” Powered By VIN, 2008, www.vin.com/apputil/content/defaultadv1.aspx?id=3866642&pid=11268&.

Seymour, Roger S. “Cardiovascular Physiology of Dinosaurs.” Physiology, vol. 31, no. 6, 6 Oct. 2016, pp. 430–441., doi:10.1152/physiol.00016.2016.

“Bird Physiology.” Basic Biology, 15 Dec. 2015, basicbiology.net/animal/birds/physiology.

Still looking for better sources.

Schutz Comments:

• Nice resources. I like that they are all primary and that you are branching out from the course textbook. I do have an ornithology textbook that focuses more on anatomy and physiology if you want to check it out.
• Make sure that you ow start separating out contributions with regard to responsibilities for each member and what you will do as a group.
• See the long list of sources on the Week 11 Timeline information for places and ideas of how you can obtain / create images

Week Six

First Drafts:

Bird anatomy (Kaitie & Danielle):

• Expand muscular section and add descriptive images and references (Kaite)
• Expand circulatory section and add descriptive images and references (Danielle)

Columbidae (Emily):

• Edit Description section of the page by creating separate subsections, including one on anatomy
• It would also link to the Bird anatomy page
• Add subsection in Description about the flight feathers and agility

Bird Anatomy (Muscular System)

Current Muscular Section (On Bird Anatomy Page):

Most birds have approximately 175 different muscles, mainly controlling the wings, skin, and legs. The largest muscles in the bird are the pectorals, or the breast muscles, which control the wings and make up about 15–25% of a flighted bird's body weight. They provide the powerful wing stroke essential for flight. The muscle medial to (underneath) the pectorals is the supracoracoideus. It raises the wing between wingbeats. Both muscle groups attach to the keel of the sternum. This is remarkable, because other vertebrates have the muscles to raise the upper limbs generally attached to areas on the back of the spine. The supracoracoideus and the pectorals together make up about 25–35% of the bird's full body weight.^{[citation needed]}

The skin muscles help a bird in its flight by adjusting the feathers, which are attached to the skin muscle and help the bird in its flight maneuvers.

There are only a few muscles in the trunk and the tail, but they are very strong and are essential for the bird. The pygostyle controls all the movement in the tail and controls the feathers in the tail. This gives the tail a larger surface area which helps keep the bird in the air.

Edits to the muscular system include:

Adding that most of the muscle mass on birds is concentrated on the ventral side, with dorsal muscles being significantly reduced as opposed to mammals. Discuss about the importance of the adaptation of a long flexible neck with complex musculature as it must allow for the head to perform functions other animals may utilize pectoral limbs for. Mention the variety of muscular composition between bird species such as the differing jaw musculature by diet or the differing leg musculature in flying or non-flying species. Add more to the description of particular muscles and what their functions are generally such as allowing for closing of the mouth, flexing of the elbow, etc. Add that skin muscles allowing for adjusting of feathers may also be significant to mating rituals. Keep the descriptions of pectoral muscles being the most important but try to confirm specifics about the portion of the body weight that they make up and how this differs between species, and find a citation for where it is listed as needed. May add about the theories of muscle adaptation in whether evolution of flight came from flapping or gliding first.

I will also attempt to find a better image that shows more of the muscular anatomy of birds. As of now I have only found images on either a leg or a wing or images that are not old enough or on Wikimedia Commons.

Sources:

Proctor, Noble S., Lynch, Patrick J. "The Musculature." Manual of Ornithology: Avian Structure and Function. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1993. 148-173.

Expanding on the description of muscles used for flight: http://www.senckenberg.de/files/content/forschung/publikationen/vertebratezoology/vz68-2/06_vertebrate_zoology_68_2_picasso-mosto_177-190.pdf

https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rstb.2015.0383

Razmadze, Daria; Panyutina, Aleksandra A; Zelenkov, Nikita V. "Anatomy of the forelimb musculature and ligaments of Psittacus erithacus (Aves: Psittaciformes)" Journal of Anatomy, vol 223, no. 4, Cot 2018, pp 496-530.

Description (Columbidae Original)

The Common ground dove is among the smallest species in the family.

A flock of pigeons, commonly seen in urban areas around the world

Pigeons and doves exhibit considerable variation in size, ranging in length from 15 to 75 centimetres (5.9 to 29.5 in), and in weight from 30 g (0.066 lb) to above 2,000 g (4.4 lb). The largest species is the crowned pigeon of New Guinea, which is nearly turkey-sized, at a weight of 2–4 kg (4.4–8.8 lb). The smallest is the New World ground dove of the genus Columbina, which is the same size as a house sparrow, weighing as little as 22 g (0.049 lb). With a total length of more than 50 cm (20 in) and weight of almost 1 kg (2.2 lb), the largest arboreal species is the Marquesan imperial pigeon, while the dwarf fruit dove, which may measure as little as 13 cm (5.1 in), has a marginally smaller total length than any other species from this family.

Overall, the Columbidae tend to have short legs, short bills with a fleshy cere, and small heads on large, compact bodies. In a series of experiments in 1975 by Dr. Mark B. Friedman, using doves, their characteristic head bobbing was shown to be due to their natural desire to keep their vision constant. It was shown yet again in a 1978 experiment by Dr. Barrie J. Frost, in which pigeons were placed on treadmills; it was observed that they did not bob their heads, as their surroundings were constant. The wings are large, and have eleven primary feathers, and low wing loading; pigeons have strong wing muscles (wing muscles comprise 31–44% of their body weight) and are among the strongest fliers of all birds. They are also highly manoeuvrable in flight.

Columbidae have unique body feathers, with the shaft being generally broad, strong, and flattened, tapering to a fine point, abruptly. In general, the aftershaft is absent; however, small ones on some tail and wing feathers may be present . Body feathers have very dense, fluffy bases, are attached loosely into the skin, and drop out easily. Possibly serving as a predator avoidance mechanism, large numbers of feathers come out in the attacker's mouth, if the bird is grabbed by a predator, facilitating the bird's escape.

The plumage of the family is variable. Granivorous species tend to have dull plumage, with a few exceptions, whereas the frugivorous species have brightly coloured plumage. The Ptilinopus (fruit doves) are some of the brightest-coloured pigeons, with the three endemic species of Fiji and the Indian Ocean Alectroenas being the brightest. Pigeons and doves may be sexually monochromatic or dichromatic. In addition to bright colours, pigeons may sport crests or other ornamentation.

Like some other birds, the Columbidae have no gall bladders. Some medieval naturalists concluded they have no bile (gall), which in the medieval theory of the four humours explained the allegedly sweet disposition of doves. In fact, however, they do have gall (as Aristotle had earlier realised), which is secreted directly into the gut.

Description (Columbidae Edited)

The Common ground dove is among the smallest species in the family.

Size and Appearance

Pigeons and doves exhibit considerable variation in size, ranging in length from 15 to 75 centimetres (5.9 to 29.5 in), and in weight from 30 g (0.066 lb) to above 2,000 g (4.4 lb). The largest species is the crowned pigeon of New Guinea, which is nearly turkey-sized, at a weight of 2–4 kg (4.4–8.8 lb). The smallest is the New World ground dove of the genus Columbina, which is the same size as a house sparrow, weighing as little as 22 g (0.049 lb). The dwarf fruit dove, which may measure as little as 13 cm (5.1 in), has a marginally smaller total length than any other species from this family. One of the largest arboreal species, the Marquesan imperial pigeon, currently battles extinction.

Anatomy & Physiology

Overall, the Columbidae tend to have short legs, short bills with a fleshy cere, and small heads on large, compact bodies. Like some other birds, the Columbidae have no gall bladders. Some medieval naturalists concluded they have no bile (gall), which in the medieval theory of the four humours explained the allegedly sweet disposition of doves. In fact, however, they do have bile (as Aristotle had earlier realized), which is secreted directly into the gut.

A pigeon lands from flight, displaying the contour and flight feathers of its wingspan.

The wings are large, and have eleven primary feathers; pigeons have strong wing muscles (wing muscles comprise 31–44% of their body weight) and are among the strongest fliers of all birds.

In a series of experiments in 1975 by Dr. Mark B. Friedman, using doves, their characteristic head bobbing was shown to be due to their natural desire to keep their vision constant. It was shown yet again in a 1978 experiment by Dr. Barrie J. Frost, in which pigeons were placed on treadmills; it was observed that they did not bob their heads, as their surroundings were constant.

Feathers

Pigeon feathers, excluding down.

Columbidae have unique body feathers, with the shaft being generally broad, strong, and flattened, tapering to a fine point, abruptly. In general, the aftershaft is absent; however, small ones on some tail and wing feathers may be present . Body feathers have very dense, fluffy bases, are attached loosely into the skin, and drop out easily. Possibly serving as a predator avoidance mechanism, large numbers of feathers fall out in the attacker's mouth if the bird is snatched, facilitating the bird's escape. The plumage of the family is variable. Granivorous species tend to have dull plumage, with a few exceptions, whereas the frugivorous species have brightly coloured plumage. The Ptilinopus (fruit doves) are some of the brightest coloured pigeons, with the three endemic species of Fiji and the Indian Ocean Alectroenas being the brightest. Pigeons and doves may be sexually monochromatic or dichromatic. In addition to bright colours, pigeons may sport crests or other ornamentation.

Flight

Columbidae are excellent fliers due to the lift provided by their large wings, which results in low wing loading; They are highly maneuverable in flight and have a low aspect ratio due to the width of their wings, allowing for quick flight launches and ability to escape from predators, but at a high energy cost.

Week Seven

Peer reviews:

I was not able to figure out how to assign myself the sandboxes to review, but I posted my reviews on the talk pages for both the Rabbit and the Iguana groups' sandboxes.

Week Nine

Muscular Section Suggestions (Katie):

All peer edits that referenced my draft of the muscular system stated that it was more of an outline than a draft. This was true, and as we move forward with the next draft I will add more explicit information rather than just stating what sort of information I am planning on. Additionally, there was a suggestion to add pictures taken during dissection for the musculature section, which we plan on doing, as well as searching through more of the literature to see if any relevant images can be obtained this way.

Columbidae Edit Suggestions (Emily):

One comment was on the convenience of adding the original section before my edited version, which I have just done. I also fixed a typo that was pointed out in the flight section. Below is the continued revisions plan that Katie and I came up with in Lab while discussing our peers' comments:

Continued Revisions:

Emily:

• Take pictures of wing extension/span with feathers and before dissection
• Take pictures of feather types (including tail) after plucking, cleaning, and drying them
• Double check feathers page for crossover, and link it in

Katie:

• Take pictures of skinned (muscles clearly cleaned and exposed) wingspan, ventral musculature, and dorsal musculature of the neck
  • These dissections would expose a deep side and a shallow side if we can manage it

Dissection Plan:

1. External photos; feather analysis; skin pigeon
2. Musculature of dorsal surface (neck region)
3. Musculature of ventral surface (pectoral and leg)
4. Circulatory inspection

*We have also been instructed to look for photos/sketches on Google Scholar from 1890-1944

Week 10: Draft #2

Edited Muscular Section (On Bird Anatomy Page):[Katie]

Most birds have approximately 175 different muscles, mainly controlling the wings, skin, and legs. Overall, the muscle mass of birds is concentrated ventrally. The largest muscles in the bird are the pectorals, or the pectoralis major, which control the wings and make up about 15–25% of a flighted bird's body weight. They provide the powerful wing stroke essential for flight. The muscle deep to (underneath) the pectorals is the supracoracoideus, or the pectoralis minor. It raises the wing between wingbeats. Both muscle groups attach to the keel of the sternum. This is remarkable, because other vertebrates have the muscles to raise the upper limbs generally attached to areas on the back of the spine. The supracoracoideus and the pectorals together make up about 25–35% of the bird's full body weight.^{[citation needed]} Caudal to the pectorals and supracoracoides are the internal and external obliques which compress the abdomen. Additionally, there are other abdominal muscles present that expand and contract the chest, and hold the ribcage.

Birds have unique necks which are elongated with complex musculature as it must allow for the head to perform functions other animals may utilize pectoral limbs for.

The skin muscles help a bird in its flight by adjusting the feathers, which are attached to the skin muscle and help the bird in its flight maneuvers as well as aiding in mating rituals.

There are only a few muscles in the trunk and the tail, but they are very strong and are essential for the bird. These include the lateralis caudae and the levator caudae which control movement of the tail and the spreading of rectrices, giving the tail a larger surface area which helps keep the bird in the air as well as aiding in turning.

Muscle composition and adaptation differ by theories of muscle adaptation in whether evolution of flight came from flapping or gliding first.

Goals:

Edit current information to keep accurate (some already inserted)

Expand on avian neck musculature

Add wing image (taken during dissection or the Raven wing on Wikimedia Commons

Add in citations, most underlined portions are from the Ornithology Textbook

Edits for Columbidea Descriptions: Emily

I made my edits into the previous portion based off of my peers comments, which included adding the original text above the edited version so that a better comparison could be made as well as fixing a typos. I have also linked out the feathers section to the feather page, and looked this over briefly. It seems pretty well done in terms of explaining the origins of feathers and the differences between them, so I will not need to go too in-depth on this particular page - a link should be sufficient. Danielle had given me some info on the flight for these birds, but not a reference so my next steps will be scouting out the flight reference as well as some wingspan pictures since our dissection bird was a bit grimy to look at. I believe that the feathers will turn out nicely though. My continued revisions will also be there so that the comparison can be made and space can be reduced for clarity's sake.

Week 11:

Katie: Images added are on the right and are taken from The Myology of the Raven

Muscular anatomy of the pectoralis major and arm of the raven. The pectoralis major is the largest muscle in the bird and this and the arm are essential to flight.

Illustrated neck musculature of the raven.

Emily: I added the landing pigeon photo to Wikimedia Commons and the description section. I am considering taking out the flock hanging around in the city picture to free up space since it is not a very clear picture, and adding in the photo I get of the dried and cleaned pigeon feathers on Tuesday in lab.

- "Touchdown" by Transport Pixels is licensed under CC BY 2.0

Week 12/13

Emily: Finished edits and went live with Columbidae Description section, and asked for comments on the talk page.

Week 14

Bird Musculature Section:

Most birds have approximately 175 different muscles, mainly controlling the wings, skin, and legs. Overall, the muscle mass of birds is concentrated ventrally. The largest muscles in the bird are the pectorals, or the pectoralis major, which control the wings and make up about 15–25% of a flighted bird's body weight.They provide the powerful wing stroke essential for flight. The muscle deep to (underneath) the pectorals is the supracoracoideus, or the pectoralis minor. It raises the wing between wingbeats. Both muscle groups attach to the keel of the sternum. This is remarkable, because other vertebrates have the muscles to raise the upper limbs generally attached to areas on the back of the spine. The supracoracoideus and the pectorals together make up about 25–40% of the bird's full body weight.^[1] Caudal to the pectorals and supracoracoides are the internal and external obliques which compress the abdomen. Additionally, there are other abdominal muscles present that expand and contract the chest, and hold the ribcage. The muscles of the wing, as seen in the labelled images, function mainly in extending or flexing the elbow, moving the wing as a whole or in extending or flexing particular digits. These muscles work to adjust the wings for flight and all other actions.^[1] Muscle composition does vary between species and even within families.^[2]

Labelled dorsal musculature of a pigeon wing

Birds have unique necks which are elongated with complex musculature as it must allow for the head to perform functions other animals may utilize pectoral limbs for.^[1]

The skin muscles help a bird in its flight by adjusting the feathers, which are attached to the skin muscle and help the bird in its flight maneuvers as well as aiding in mating rituals.

There are only a few muscles in the trunk and the tail, but they are very strong and are essential for the bird. These include the lateralis caudae and the levator caudae which control movement of the tail and the spreading of rectrices, giving the tail a larger surface area which helps keep the bird in the air as well as aiding in turning.^[1]

Labelled ventral musculature of a pigeon wing

Muscle composition and adaptation differ by theories of muscle adaptation in whether evolution of flight came from flapping or gliding first.^[3]