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Ilkhanid architecture

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General

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Muqarnas dome inside the Mausoleum of Shaykh 'Abd al-Samad in Natanz (1307–8)

From the 13th century to the early 16th century, Iran and Central Asia came under the control of two major dynasties descended from the Mongol conqueror Genghis Khan, the Ilkhanids (1256–1353) and the Timurids (1370–1506). This period saw the construction of some of the largest and most ambitious Iranian monuments of the Islamic world.[1] The Ilkhanids were initially traditional nomadic Mongols, but at the end of the 13th century, Ghazan Khan (r. 1295–1304) converted to Islam and aided a cultural and economic resurgence in which urban Iranian culture was of primary importance. Ilkhanid vassals, like the Muzaffarids and the Jalayirids, also sponsored new constructions.[1]

Ilkhanid architecture elaborated earlier Iranian traditions. In particular, greater attention was given to interior spaces and how to organize them. Rooms were made taller, while transverse vaulting was employed and walls were opened with arches, thus allowing more light and air inside.[1] Muqarnas, which was previously confined to covering limited transitional elements like squinches, was now used to cover entire domes and vaults for purely decorative effect. The Tomb of 'Abd al-Samad in Natanz (1307–8), for example, is covered inside by an elaborate muqarnas dome that is made from stucco suspended below the pyramidal vault that roofs the building.[1]

Details of the carved stucco mihrab added by the Ilkhanids in 1310 to the Jameh Mosque in Isfahan

Brick remained the main construction material, but more color was added through the use of tile mosaic, which involved cutting monochrome tiles of different colors into pieces that were then fitted together to form larger patterns, especially geometric motifs and floral motifs.[1] Carved stucco decoration also continued. Some exceptional examples in Iran come from this period, including a wall of carved stucco in the Mausoleum of Pir-i Bakran in Linjan (near Isfahan),[2] and a mihrab added in 1310 to the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan. The latter is one of the masterpieces of Islamic sculptural art from this era, featuring multiple layers of deeply-carved vegetal motifs, along with a carved inscription.[3]

Palaces

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Mosques

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Entrance portal with muqarnas vaulting, twin minarets, and tile decoration at the Jameh Mosque of Yazd, Ilkhanid period (14th century)

Various mosques were built or expanded during this period, usually following the four-iwan plan for congregational mosques (e.g. at Varamin and Kirman), except in the northwest, where cold winters discouraged the presence of an open courtyard, as at the Jameh Mosque of Ardabil (now ruined). Another hallmark of the Ilkhanid period is the introduction of monumental mosque portals topped by twin minarets, as seen at the Jameh Mosque of Yazd.[1] Caravanserais were built again, although the Khan al-Mirjan in Baghdad is the only surviving example.[1]



Tombs

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Mausoleum of Uljaytu at Soltaniyeh (early 14th century)

The most impressive monument to survive from this period is the Soltaniyeh Mausoleum built for Sultan Uljaytu (r. 1304–1317), a massive dome supported on a multi-level octagonal structure with internal and external galleries. Only the domed building remains today, missing much of its original turquoise tile decoration, but it was once the centerpiece of a larger religious complex including a mosque, a hospital, and living areas.[4]

Smaller tombs and shrines in honour of local Sufis were also built or renovated by Ilkhanid patrons, such as the shrine of Bayazid Bastami in the town of Bastam, the aforementioned Mausoleum of Pir-i Bakran, and the aforementioned Tomb of Abd-al-Samad.[5] Also in Bastam, the Ilkhanids built a traditional tower tomb to house the remains of Uljaytu's infant son. Unusually, rather than being an independent structure, the tomb was erected behind the qibla wall of the town's main mosque – a configuration also found in some contemporary Mamluk architecture.[5]



Turkish architecture

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Architecture under the Anatolian Seljuks incorporated an eclectic mix of influences,[6] adopting local Byzantine, Armenian, and Georgian elements and combining them with designs from Islamic Syria, Iran, Iraq, and Central Asia.[7][8] Their monuments were largely built in dressed stone, with brick used for minarets.[9] Decoration was concentrated around certain elements like entrance portals and took the form of elaborate stone carving (e.g. the Ince Minareli Medrese and the Divriği complex), occasional ablaq stonework (e.g. Alâeddin Mosque in Konya), and large surfaces covered in tilework (e.g. Karatay Medrese).[10][11] As Anatolia fragmented into Beyliks during the later 13th and 14th centuries, architecture became even more diverse, particularly in western Anatolia, where proximity to the Byzantine and Mediterranean worlds encouraged further experimentation and syncretism.[12]

The architecture of the early Ottomans experimented with different building types, including single-domed mosques, multi-domed buildings, and religious buildings with T-shaped floor plans.[13] This eventually evolved into the Classical Ottoman style that was consolidated during the 16th and 17th centuries.[14] This style, drawing strong influence from the Hagia Sophia, produced grand imperial mosques designed around a central dome and a varying number of semi-domes.[15] This period is also associated with the most famous Ottoman architect, Mimar Sinan (d. 1588). Among his over 300 designs across the empire, his most important works include the Şehzade Mosque in Istanbul, the Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul, and the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne.[15] In decorative arts, Iznik tiles reached their artistic peak and were used in many buildings.[16][12] After the 17th century, Ottoman architecture was increasingly open to outside influences. Shifts during the Tulip Period were followed by the appearance of the Ottoman Baroque style in the 1740s.[17][18] In the 19th century, Western European influences increased and architects such as the Balyans produced eclectic works like the luxurious Dolmabaçe Palace.[19] In the early 20th-century, a kind of Ottoman revivalism known as the First National Architectural Movement was led by architects like Mimar Kemaleddin and Vedat Tek.[20][21]

Potential riad addition

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In Tlemcen, Algeria, the Mechouar Palace of the Zayyanid era (no longer extant) was built in the same architectural tradition as that of al-Andalus and present-day Morocco, with courtyards featuring gardens and kiosks.[22]: 139, 144  Modern excavations have revealed that one of its residences was originally an elongated rectangular courtyard similar to the contemporary Court of the Myrtles in the Alhambra or the madrasa of Chellah, then expanded in the late Zayyanid period to feature a large cruciform water basin.[22]: 140–143 

Refs and misc

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Baybars unused ref:[23]


Almoravid south: [24][25]

[26][27][28][29][30][31] [32] [33][34][35] [36]

Cordoba: [37]

Ottoman cats

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"Under their patronage a distinctive architectural style developed that combined the Islamic traditions of Anatolia, Iran and Syria with those of the Classical world and Byzantium."[38]

[39] (no page number)

[40] p.37

[41] p.473

Interesting but maybe not clear, mentions Goodwin:[42]

Refs

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  1. ^ a b c d e f g Bloom & Blair 2009, Architecture (VI. c. 1250–c. 1500) harvnb error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFBloomBlair2009 (help)
  2. ^ Bloom & Blair 2009, Isfahan harvnb error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFBloomBlair2009 (help)
  3. ^ Blair & Bloom 1995, pp. 10–11.
  4. ^ Tabbaa, Yasser (2007). "Architecture". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three. Brill. ISBN 9789004161658.
  5. ^ a b Blair & Bloom 1995, pp. 8–10.
  6. ^ Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001, p. 234.
  7. ^ M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Architecture; V. c. 900–c. 1250; C. Anatolia". The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195309911.
  8. ^ Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001, p. 264.
  9. ^ Hattstein & Delius 2011, p. 371.
  10. ^ Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001, p. 241.
  11. ^ M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Architecture; V. c. 900–c. 1250; C. Anatolia". The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195309911.
  12. ^ a b M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Architecture; VI. c. 1250–c. 1500; B. Anatolia". The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195309911.
  13. ^ Bloom, Jonathan M.; Blair, Sheila S., eds. (2009). "Ottoman". The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195309911.
  14. ^ Bloom, Jonathan M.; Blair, Sheila S., eds. (2009). "Ottoman". The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195309911.
  15. ^ a b Bloom, Jonathan M.; Blair, Sheila S., eds. (2009). "Ottoman". The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195309911.
  16. ^ Carswell 2006, p. 75.
  17. ^ Kuban 2010, pp. 505–509, 517–518.
  18. ^ Rüstem 2019, pp. 18–22, 55 and after.
  19. ^ Kuban 2010, pp. 605–606.
  20. ^ Bloom, Jonathan M.; Blair; Sheila S. (2009). "Kemalettin". Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Three-Volume Set. Oxford University Press. p. 379. ISBN 978-0-19-530991-1.
  21. ^ Freely 2011, p. 393.
  22. ^ a b Charpentier, Agnès (2018). Tlemcen médiévale: urbanisme, architecture et arts (in French). Éditions de Boccard. ISBN 9782701805252.
  23. ^ Fromherz, Allan J. (2012). "Baybars I". In Akyeampong, Emmanuel Kwaku; Gates, Henry Louis (eds.). Dictionary of African Biography. Oxford University Press. p. 407. ISBN 978-0-19-538207-5. Although his date of birth is uncertain, most scholars agree he was born around 1233 far away from Egypt in the steppes of the Kipchak Turkish nomads.
  24. ^ Messier 2010, p. 86: "A Nor did Abu Bakr interfere with Yusuf's free hand in Morocco or Spain. The old amir ruled in the Sahara in the same way that tribal chiefs among the Sanhaja had done for generations, through a combination nation of tribal loyalties, religious appeal, and military strength. He had every intention to continue the religious revival in the vein of strict Malikite Islam. He brought to the desert a teacher from the city of Aghmat, the Imam al-Hadrami. The latter had studied Malikite law in both Qayrawan and Andalusia. Abu Bakr made him qadi, judge, in Azuggi. From there, Imam al-Hadrami went out to preach among the unbelievers."
  25. ^ Bennison 2016, p. 2: "The Arabic narrative, such as it is, posits that Abu Bakir b. 'Umar returned to the Almoravids' southern base or capital at Azuggi in modern Mauritania with a handful of Maliki jurists, including Abu Bakr Muhammad al-Muradi from Qayrawan, to orchestrate the Almoravid advance south against the Soninke kingdom of Ghana, which was successfully conquered around 1076-7 and subsequently collapsed."
  26. ^ Messier, Ronald A. (2010). The Almoravids and the Meanings of Jihad. Praeger. pp. 17, 86. ISBN 978-0-313-38589-6. [p.17] Trouble broke out once again in Sijilmasa within a year after the Almoravids had taken it. The residents of the city turned against the Almoravids who were garrisoned there, supposedly while they were praying in the mosque, and massacred many of them. Ibn Yasin began to plan a second expedition against the city of the Maghrawa. The timing could not have been worse; it seemed as if the whole of the Sahara was in rebellion! The Bani Gudala chose this moment to break away from the Sanhaja confederation. This open revolt of the Bani Gudala is linked with their rejection of Ibn Yasin; but it could also have something to do with their desire to seek their own fortune, now, along the salt routes to Awlil on the coast of the Atlantic. Regardless, it forced the Almoravids to split their forces. Ibn Yasin went north with a small detachment of Almoravid warriors. He added to his army as he went, recruiting tribesmen from the Bani Sarta and the Bani Tarja. He joined his forces to those of Abu Bakr Ibn Umar, Yahya's brother, who was already in the region of the Draa to the southwest of Sijilmasa. Yahya Ibn Umar, meanwhile, remained with part of the army in the Adrar, in the heartland of the Bani Lamtuna. He established his base at a place called Jabal Lamtuna. These mountains were surrounded by some 20,000 date palms. There was abundant water and pasturage. Most importantly, the place was easily defensible. He held up in a fortress called Azuggi, which his brother Yannu had built. [p.86] Nor did Abu Bakr interfere with Yusuf's free hand in Morocco or Spain. The old amir ruled in the Sahara in the same way that tribal chiefs among the Sanhaja had done for generations, through a combination nation of tribal loyalties, religious appeal, and military strength. He had every intention to continue the religious revival in the vein of strict Malikite Islam. He brought to the desert a teacher from the city of Aghmat, the Imam al-Hadrami. The latter had studied Malikite law in both Qayrawan and Andalusia. Abu Bakr made him qadi, judge, in Azuggi. From there, Imam al-Hadrami went out to preach among the unbelievers. {{cite book}}: line feed character in |quote= at position 1500 (help)
  27. ^ Bennison, Amira K. (2016). The Almoravid and Almohad Empires. Edinburgh University Press. p. 37. ISBN 9780748646821. The Arabic narrative, such as it is, posits that Abu Bakir b. 'Umar returned to the Almoravids' southern base or capital at Azuggi in modern Mauritania with a handful of Maliki jurists, including Abu Bakr Muhammad al-Muradi from Qayrawan, to orchestrate the Almoravid advance south against the Soninke kingdom of Ghana, which was successfully conquered around 1076-7 and subsequently collapsed.
  28. ^ Levtzion, Nehemia (2019). "'Abd Allah b. Yasin and the Almoravids". In Willis, John Ralph (ed.). Studies in West African Islamic History: The Cultivators of Islam. Routledge. pp. 99–100. ISBN 978-1-315-29732-3. After the confrontation with Ibn Tashfin, Abu Bakr b. 'Umar returned to the desert, where he led the southern wing of the Almoravids in the jihad against the Sudanis. The base for his operations seems to have been the town of Azukki (Azugi, Arkar.) It is first mentioned as the fortress in Jabal Lamtuna (Adrar), where Yahya b. 'Umar was besieged and killed by the Juddala. Azukki, according to al-Bakri, was built by Yannu b. 'Umar, the brother of Yahya and Abu Bakr. Al-Idrisi mentions Azukki as an important Saharan town on the route from Sijilmasa to the Sudan, and adds that this was its Berber name, whereas Sudanis called it Kukadam (written as Quqadam).
  29. ^ Norris, H.T.; Chalmeta, P. (1993). "al-Murābiṭūn". In Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P.; Pellat, Ch. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Vol. 7. Brill. pp. 583–591. The foundation of the town of Azūgi (vars. Azuggī, Azuḳḳī, Azukkī) as the southern capital of the Almoravids. It lies 10 km NW of Atar. According to al-Bakrī, it was a fortress, surrounded by 20,000 palms, and it had been founded by Yānnū b. ʿUmar al-Ḥād̲j̲d̲j̲, a brother of Yaḥyā b. ʿUmar. It seems likely that Azūgi became the seat of the Ḳāḍī Muḥammad b. al-Ḥasan al-Murādī al-Ḥaḍramī (to cite both the Ḳāḍī ʿlyāḍ and Ibn Bas̲h̲kuwāl), who died there in 489/1095-6 (assuming Azūgi to be Azkid or Azkd). The town was for long regarded as the "capital of the Almoravids", well after the fall of the dynasty in Spain and even after its fall in the Balearic Islands. It receives a mention by al-Idrīsī, al-Zuhrī and other Arab geographers.
  30. ^ Norris, H.T. (1993). "Mūrītāniyā". In Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P.; Pellat, Ch. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Vol. 7. Brill. pp. 583–591. The movement of the "men of the ribāṭ", the Almoravids [see al-murābiṭūn ], became established in the Río de Oro and in parts of Mauritania by missionaries who were adepts of the saint Wad̲j̲ād̲j̲ b. Zalw, who had previously established a ribāṭ at Aglū in the Sūs of Morocco, not far from present-day Tīznīt and Ifnī (see F. Meier, Almoraviden und Marabute , in WI, xxi, 80-163). However, the raids of the Saharans who joined the movement were primarily launched from within against Morocco itself, so that Mauritania never became its major centre. Only Azuggī, the capital of the southern wing, under Abū Bakr b. ʿUmar and his successors, was considered worthy of mention by such geographers as al-Idrīsī and Ibn Saʿīd al-Mag̲h̲ribī.
  31. ^ Norris, H. T. (1986). The Arab Conquest of the Western Sahara: Studies of the Historical Events, Religious Beliefs and Social Customs which Made the Remotest Sahara a Part of the Arab World. Longman. p. 243. ISBN 978-0-582-75643-4. Its present capital is Āṭār, though in the mediaeval period its principal towns were Azuqqi (Azougui), which, for a while, was the "capital" of the southern wing of the Almoravid movement, (...)
  32. ^ Ould Cheikh, Abdel Wedoud; Saison, Bernard (1987-01-01). "Vie(s) Et Mort(s) De Al-Imām Al-Hadrāmi: Autour de la postérité saharienne du mouvement almoravide (11e-17e s.)". Arabica. 34 (1): 48–79. doi:10.1163/157005887X00342. ISSN 1570-0585. Au milieu du Ve siecle H/XIe siecle ap. J.C., l'écrivain andalou al-Bakri fait état de l'existence à «Arki» d'une «forteresse...au milieu de 20 000 palmiers...édifiée par Yannu Ibn 'Umar al-Ḥāğ, frère de Yaḥya Ibn 'Umar... ». Cette brève mention est vraisemblablement a l'origine du qualificatif d'«almoravide» qu'en l'absence de toute investigation proprement archéologique, les historiens modernes ont généralement attribué aux ruines apparentes du tell archéologique d'Azūgi; nous y reviendrons. Au siecle suivant, al-Idrisi (1154) localise la «première des stations du Sahara...au pays des Massūfa et des Lamṭa» ; étape sur un itinéraire transsaharien joignant Siğilmāsa a Silla, Takrūr ou Gāna, Azūki, ou Kukdam en «langue gināwiyya des Sudan», abrite une population prospère. Pour brève et a nos yeux trop imprécise qu'elle soit, l'évocation d'al-Idrisi est néanmoins la plus étoffée de celles qui nous sont parvenues des auteurs «médiévaux» de langue arabe. Aucun écrivain contemporain d'al-Idrisi, ou postérieur, qu'il s'agisse d'al-Zuhri (ap. 1133), d'Ibn Sa'id et surtout d'Ibn Haldun - qui n'en prononce même pas le nom dans son récit pourtant complet de 1'histoire du mouvement almoravide - ne nous fournit en effet d'élément nouveau sur Azūgi. A la fin du XVe siècle, au moment où apparaissent les navigateurs portugais sur les côtes sahariennes, al-Qalqašandi et al-Himyari ne mentionnent plus «Azūqi» ou «Azīfi» que comme un toponyme parmi d'autres au Bilād al-Sudān... Les sources écrites arabes des XIe-XVe siècles ne livrent donc sur Azūgi que de brèves notices, infiniment moins détaillées et prolixes que celles dont font l'objet, pour la même période et chez ces mêmes auteurs, certaines grandes cités toutes proches, telles Awdagust, Gāna, Kawkaw, Niani, Walāta, etc... Faut-il voir dans cette discrétion un témoignage «a silentio» sur l'affaiblissement matériel d'une agglomération — une «ville» au sens où l'entendent habituellement les auteurs cités? — dont al-Idrisi affirme effectivement qu'elle n'est point une grande ville»? {{cite journal}}: line feed character in |quote= at position 782 (help)
  33. ^ Vanacker, Christiane (1979). "La Mauritanie jusqu'au XXe siècle". Introduction à la Mauritanie (in French). Institut de recherches et d’études sur les mondes arabes et musulmans, Éditions du CNRS. ISBN 978-2-271-08123-0. Il est souhaitable que les fouilles prévues à Azougui, première « capitale » fondée par les Almoravides (avant Marrakech) puissent être prochainement réalisées.
  34. ^ Gaudio, Attilio (1978). Le Dossier de la Mauritanie (in French). Nouvelles Editions Latines. ISBN 978-2-7233-0035-3. L'historien El Bekri, dans sa Description de l'Afrique septentrionale, parle de l'ancienne fortresse d'Azougui, située dans une grande palmeraie de l'Adrar mauritanien, comme ayant été la véritable capital des sultans almoravides, avant leur épopée maroco-espagnole. Elle ne dut connaître qu'une splendeur éphémère, car depuis la fin du XIIe siècle son nom disparaît des chroniques.
  35. ^ Daddah, Mokhtar Ould (2003). La Mauritanie contre vents et marées (in French). KARTHALA Editions. p. 357. ISBN 978-2-8111-3765-6. Ces fouilles archéologiques, supervisées par l'Institut mauritanien de la recherche scientifique (I.M.R.S.) depuis sa création, devaient se poursuivre à Aouadaghost et s'étendre à Azougui, première capital Almoravide (près d'Atar), à Koumbi Saleh dont j'ai déjà parlé.
  36. ^ Nixon, Sam (2020). "The Sahara". In Walker, Bethany; Insoll, Timothy; Fenwick, Corisande (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Archaeology. Oxford University Press. p. 295. ISBN 978-0-19-998788-7. Azuggi was the base of the Almoravids following their movement northward from the Sahel in the mid-11th century (Saison 1981; Levtzion and Hopkins 2000).
  37. ^ Curta, Florin; Holt, Andrew, eds. (2017). Great Events in Religion: An Encyclopedia of Pivotal Events in Religious History [3 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 412. ISBN 978-1-61069-566-4.
  38. ^ M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Ottoman". The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press. p. 82. ISBN 9780195309911.
  39. ^ Sanders, Paula (2008-01-01). Creating Medieval Cairo: Empire, Religion, and Architectural Preservation in Nineteenth-Century Egypt. American University in Cairo Press. ISBN 978-1-61797-230-0.
  40. ^ Behrens-Abouseif, Doris; Vernoit, Stephen (2006). Islamic Art in the 19th Century: Tradition, Innovation, And Eclecticism. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-14442-2.
  41. ^ Fleet, Kate; Faroqhi, Suraiya N.; Kunt, Ibrahim Metin; Kasaba, Reşat (2006-11-02). The Cambridge History of Turkey. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-62095-6.
  42. ^ Hills, Helen (2017-07-05). Rethinking the Baroque. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-55117-5.
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