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Feminist Literature and Proto-Feminism in the Early Republic of China

Introduction

Feminist literature is when authors write about their experiences and perspectives supports the idea of equal rights for women, promotes gender equality, challenges gender norms, highlights women's roles, exposes inequality, and explores identity. Feminist literature stemmed centuries ago beginning from the 15th century, and ever since women have been writing feminist novels until their kind will be able to reach equality for both genders without prejudice and oppression.

Female students attend the May 4th Movement

The Early Republic of China was when the rise of feminist ideas started. When the Chinese Communist Government started gaining influence, Chinese writing shifted from romanticizing to realistic. Words such as "I" turned to "we" to promote the Communist regime. Furthermore, Chinese feminist authors referenced back to Freudian psychoanalysis for their feminist writings on gender relationships.

Proto-feminist literature is writing that expresses feminist characteristics before the modern feminist movement in the 19th century. The feminist movement sparked criticism towards that treatment of women in society and culture, questioning gender norms, encouraging self-reliance, and express changing attitudes.

In the Early Republic of China, the decline of the Qing Dynasty and the rise of Revolutionary movements aided in the exposure of western ideas through proto-feminist literature. For example, the May 4th Movement questioned Confucian views towards women. Through the feminist movements, feminists advocated for women's rights and criticized the oppression of women whether through marriage, foot binding, etc. This is significant as authors during this time period utilized their voices to progress China's traditional society. Many women who fought for their rights fought for their future generation's education, legal equality, and suffrage. Literature was a prominent piece of art that shined light into the pressing societal issues of oppressed self-expression, violence, nationalism, feminism, and gender roles that limits a person's actions.

Ding Ling and Qiu Jin

A photo of Ding Ling

A photo of Qiu Jin

During the Early Republic of China, many notable authors such as Ding Ling and Qiu Jin were major influences in the progression of women's rights. Ding Ling was born on October 12, 1904 in Hunan Province, China and died on March 4, 1986 in Beijing. Ding Ling wrote short stories around young, unconventional women and Ling became a leftist figure in Chinese feminist literature. Her works were heavily influences by her single mother that worked as a teacher when her father died in her early life. Living with an independent mother influenced Ling's anti-traditionalist views which influenced her notable works to this day. Similarly to Ding Ling, Qiu Jin was also a notable figure in the feminist movement until she was beheaded in the Qing Dynasty for her views. Qiu Jin was born on November 8, 1875 and died on July 15, 1907. During Qiu Jin's time, the Japanese started experiencing Western influences and Chine sent wealthy elites to Japan to learn from them. After her work, Jin started her revolutionary activists and became a notable social worker. Ding Ling's, Miss Sophia's Diary, and Qiu Jin's, Stones of the Jingwei Bird, were stories that impacted feminist movements and encouraged Chinese women to fight for their rights in a traditional China.

Some more examples of Ding Ling and Qiu Jin works were noted by their multiple books which influenced the feminist movement in China. Ding Ling's Miss Sophia's Diary is told in 1st person, and the main character, Sophia, challenges and critiques traditional Chinese views. Sophia explores her romantic desires as well as she boldly pushes for the idea of the Modern Woman. When I Was in Xia Village portrayed the physical, social, and mental destruction that was incited by the Japanese. The main character, Zhen Zhen, was kidnapped and forced into sexual servitude for the Japanese. Ding Ling's book raises issues on sexual abuse in wartime and explores other complex consequences. Lastly, Ding Ling's unfinished novel, Mother, is dedicated to her mother, Yu Manzhen. Her mother was a prominent figure in Ding Ling's life as she was the one to influence her child about nonconventional views in China. Ling's mother studied at the no. 1 school for girls in the Hunan Province and became an elementary school teacher while raising her children as a single mother. Comparatively to her, Qiu Jin's Stones of a Jingwei Bird is a mythical creature from a Chinese story about a woman who drowns in the ocean and is transformed into a bird by her grieving father. The bird's fate is to fly every day and drop stones and sticks into the ocean to fill it up so that no one else will drown. Qiu Jin uses the bird to symbolize Chinese women to break free from traditional views put on them and stand up for themselves. Chinese Women's Diary featured feminist writings outside of the view that women are mothers or educators. Qiu Jin expressed that traditional family was oppressive towards women. In An Address to My Two Hundred Million Compatriots in China, Qiu Jin wrote this to inspire and empower Chinese women to challenge gender inequality and the Qing Dynasty. She advocated for equal education and wanted a more Western government and attempted to overthrow the Qing Dynasty.

Both Ding Ling and Qiu Jin were famous feminist icons that utilized their experiences and voices to speak for their rights and the rights for the future generations. Qiu Jin's studied from Japan, rejection of traditional gender norms, and revolutionary activism plays a part into shaping women's rights in the Qing Dynasty. On the other hand, Ding Ling's literary works highlight on women's psychological and emotional struggles to reflect the influences of Marxism and the Communist Revolution. Her critical role in being a leftist literary icon left a mark on her post-revolutionary ideas that were seen as too individualistic during her time.

Books on Feminist Literature and Proto-Feminism from Ding Ling and Qiu Jin

Miss Sophia's Diary

In Ding Ling's, Miss Sophia's Diary, the themes of gender was expressed through patriarchal oppression and strict gender roles. Ling expressed that women are not flowers, and that they had the capacity to make their own thoughts. Sophia explored her own sexuality but denounces it because of societal pressure. The conflict between traditional Confucian ideas and modern Western ideas were present through Sophia's monologues. Sophia goes through immense societal expectations, goes through an identity crisis in patriarchal structures, and finds herself trapped in social conventions. Sophia's empowerment is seen when she challenges gender oppression through exploring her individuality and criticizing traditional society. Since the story is told through Sophia's Diary, her thoughts are told in 1st person which can be subjective. Sophia was symbolized as a 'madwoman' who overturns traditional views of women, and her diary represents her identity throughout her lifetime. The intertextuality of the text goes against patriarchy, frankness towards women's emotions through the internal monologue of a young woman, and resists conventional portrayals of courtship and women.

Stones of a Jingwei Bird

A jingwei bird. A mythical creature in Chinese literature.

Compared to Stones of a Jingwei Bird, Jin expresses women's liberation, oppressing gender roles, and the patriarchy. Stones of a Jingwei Bird is written in tanci style, a narrative form in Chinese songs that is intended to be read, not performed. Qiu Jin advocates women to pursue their intellectual aspirations and equality while criticizing rich women who don’t help non-rich women for their rights and equality. However, her target audience is the same people who she is criticizing. She wants to call for action which is why she ended her book on a positive note, calling for all the leaders (women) to help save the nation. She criticizes women who accept their fate and stay on the sidelines while they obey their husbands and pacify men with their beauty. Jin expresses women empowerment based on her societal duties and social activities. The point of view of the story is from the Jingwei Bird. The sticks and stones symbolize Chinese women from drowning into oppression. Based on the tanci style used to tell Jin's story, she utilizes an old mythical creature to make a connection for women to find a way to fight for their equal rights in the Qing Dynasty.

Limitations of Feminist Literature

Even though feminist literature and proto-feminism are movements to encourage women, there have also been criticism towards the movement. Some limitations about the feminist movement during the early republic of China is that many citizens may find it hard to relate if they have not experienced it themselves which could lead to unimpressed interest. There are also broad themes regarding feminism so there could be difficulty for there to be a consensus. Many citizens were skeptical of the movement, claiming that they were overly critical of men and exaggerated the issues which causes a victim mentality. Those who were strong believers in traditional roles see feminism as a threat to their beliefs.

Furthermore, feminist literature was viewed as overly critical of men who preferred to stick with the status quo and dismissive of traditional values, adding onto the backlash from those who saw it as an attack on their dominated male authority and the established social order. Critics argued that the movement exaggerated gender disparities, claiming that women are primarily victims rather than individuals capable of agency. This perception of feminism as fostering a "victim mentality" also sympathized with some potential supporters who felt the movement was unrealistic or overly negative on their lives and relationships.

Additionally, the strong presence of Confucian ideals in Chinese society, which emphasized the social class of women to men and upheld rigid gender roles, contributed to the critical and resistance against feminist ideas. For those who want to maintain these traditional roles, feminism was seen not only as a challenge to social order but as a direct threat to their way of life. In this context, feminist literature was often viewed as social disruption, undermining family structures and the moral of society. As a result, while feminist ideas did find a voice in early Republican China, their impact was often limited by both ideological opposition and the broader societal reluctance to embrace change.

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