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Political deception refers to the deceiving of any person(s) who is or are connected with politics, including both citizens and politicians. [1][2] It involves the utilisation of lies, misinformation, manipulation etc. in political scenarios in order to achieve some form of goal. These goals are usually politically, economically or personally motivated.[3] A historically well-documented aspect of politics, political deception has been both argued for and against. [4] Predominately totalitarian states, such as Iran or Russia, have been documented as actively participating in political deception, where the “cheating of the people”, stated by Bell and Whaley, is seen as a normal political tool.[5] Opposition to this idea can be seen in democratic states, such as The United States of America and other Western countries, which inherently reject the notion of political deception due its in-compliance with the ethical principles of democracy.[6] However, political deception and deceit is still present in democratic political systems, due to their effectiveness in possibly defending the state or maintaining a politician’s or political body’s control of power.[5] This has led political deception to become viewed as an almost unavoidable circumstance, especially when viewed from the increasingly sceptical and politically charged viewpoint of contemporary society.[3]
Origins
[edit]
As stated above, political deception has been present in society for many years. It is asserted by Markland that this behaviour was a development of humanity’s survival mechanisms, especially as it began to transition into a more structured and society-based race. [7] Even following the development of democracy in the 5th century BC, humanity’s gravitation to deceit still managed to embed itself in most political systems and be knowingly utilised.[7][8] Niccolò Machiavelli's political theorisations in his book, The Prince, highlight the effectiveness of immorality in political manoeuvres in achieving greater personal and political success.[9] This ideology has remained present in political theory since its publishing, continuing to influence contemporary political scenarios.[10]
Forms
[edit]The following are examples of the forms that political deception takes:
Propaganda
[edit]Propaganda are engineered ideas or notions that aid or denigrate a group in society, including in political situations.[11] It grew to fruition along with the development of different media devices, especially in the conflict-ridden 20th century. These wars saw propaganda used to demonise opposition and draw citizen’s attention away from their own government’s misadventures, a practice which had been in place for many years before.[12] Contemporarily, propaganda can be found throughout mainstream media forms, especially news and social media.[13]
Political Tactics
[edit]The tactics of political bodies and/or figures serve to ensure their implementor’s desired political outcomes are achieved.[14] These are often analysed by media outlets, over a range of media forms, in order to discover the intent behind their implementation.[15] Some include, but are not limited to: artful dodging, which involves providing an answer to a question that does not answer it fully; paltering, when opinions or verdicts are created with the knowledge they are false by using a truthful statements; and lying by commission, which involves directly deceiving an audience by stating something that is false.[16]
Self Deception
[edit]Self-deception refers to the practice of perceiving a situation as one would like it to be and ignoring its reality.[17] When considered in a political paradigm, it can occur both within leading political figures and citizens; however, it is not always intentional.[18] Revel asserts “that humans do not use all available information when they make decisions. Instead they pay selective attention to the type of information.”[19] Self-deception in politics often involves ignoring unfavourable decisions, often at the expense of the less powerful in the political system.[19]
Examples
[edit]The following are some notable historical examples of political deception:
Nazi Propaganda
[edit]The propaganda proliferated by the Nazi Party were designed to create a positive image of itself and its endeavours.[20] It was extremely effective upon the middle lower class of Germany, who were key to Adolf Hitler’s ascension to power.[21] Initially, Nazi propaganda revolved around the strength that Germany possessed as both a country and as a race, along with the use of Jewish people as a scapegoat for the issues Germany faced[22]. However, as World War II progressed it focussed upon assuring the German population that they were going to succeed, despite heavy losses experienced on all fronts.[20]
Watergate Scandal
[edit]The Watergate scandal arose following the breaking-and-entering of five men into the Democratic National Committee on June 17,1972.[23] It was suspected at the time that the burglars were connected to Nixon’s re-election campaign; however, he adamantly stated that he and his team were not involved and was re-elected.[24] Significant media investigation, which was spearheaded by Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein of the Washington Post, soon revealed bugs has been placed in the Watergate complex, along with the discovery of secret payments made by Nixon to silence potential whistle-blowers. This exposed Nixon’s involvement and forced his resignation in 1974.[23][25]
Clinton-Lewinsky Scandal
[edit]The secret affair between then U.S. President William Clinton and intern Monica Lewinsky came to light in the latter years of the 1990s, following the revealing of recordings in which Lewinsky discussed her involvement with Clinton.[26] The incident was highly dramatized by mainstream media, which had a great deal of new mediums at their disposal.[27] Clinton initially denied his involvement in the affair, before his lie was revealed after the discovery of his DNA in a stain on Lewinsky’s dress. However, the House of Representatives' attempt to impeach him was rejected by the Senate. [25][26]
Counter-Measures
[edit]In contemporary society, there has been an increase in concern surrounding political deception and the implications it may have on broader political conduct.[28] As a result of this, discussion of potential solutions has also increased, particularly from groups and individuals who adhere to the laws of democracy.[29] The failure of present-day attempts to quell political deception are attributed, by Tsipursky, to a fall in mainstream media usage and a rise in social-media usage. Political truth becomes illusive, as social-media news is incredibly hard to fact-check.[29] A rising movement, coined the ‘pro-truth’ movement, is one of several contemporary efforts to reign in political deception.[30] They bring forward the idea of a ‘Pro-Truth Pledge’, which encourages organisations, people and politicians alike to commit to the dissemination of truth in politics and political discussion. [29] Another suggestion, made by Mountain, is to apply laws to political activity that are similar to those applied to advertising companies, who are required by law to remain truthful to the public.[28]
References
[edit]- ^ "the definition of political". www.dictionary.com. Retrieved 2019-05-17.
- ^ "the definition of deception". www.dictionary.com. Retrieved 2019-05-17.
- ^ a b Somin, I. (2016). Why politicians lie. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/volokh-conspiracy/wp/2016/10/25/why-politicians-lie/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.6ab270466911
- ^ The Oxford handbook of lying. Meibauer, Jörg, (First Edition ed.). Oxford, United Kingdom. ISBN 9780198736578. OCLC 1079003139.
{{cite book}}:|edition=has extra text (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: others (link) - ^ a b Bell, J. Bowyer; Whaley, Barton (2017-09-04), "Chapter 8: Public Cheating:Politics, Espionage,and War", Cheating and Deception, Routledge, pp. 254–281, ISBN 9781315081496, retrieved 2019-05-17
- ^ Robinson, Piers; Miller, David; Herring, Eric; Bakir, Vian (2018-11-15), "Lying and Deception in Politics", The Oxford Handbook of Lying, Oxford University Press, pp. 528–540, ISBN 9780198736578, retrieved 2019-05-17
- ^ a b Markland, A. (2012). The Genealogy of Lying and Deception in Political Theory (Post-graduate). Wesleyan University.
- ^ Hunt, Lynn, 1945- author. Martin, Thomas R., 1947- author. Rosenwein, Barbara H., author. Hsia, R. Po-chia, 1955- author. Smith, Bonnie G., 1940- author. The making of the West : peoples and cultures. ISBN 0312183690. OCLC 47162777.
{{cite book}}:|last=has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Strauss, Leo; Cropsey, Joseph (1987). History of Political Philosophy. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226777108.
- ^ Machiavelli, Niccolò. (2014). The Prince. Newburyport: Open Road Media. ISBN 9781480427983. OCLC 892798388.
- ^ "the definition of propaganda". www.dictionary.com. Retrieved 2019-05-17.
- ^ Welch, David, 1950-. World War II propaganda : analyzing the art of persuasion during wartime. Santa Barbara, California. ISBN 9781610696739. OCLC 895731411.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Zollman, Florian, 1976-. Media, propaganda and the politics of intervention. New York. ISBN 9781433139406. OCLC 982373847.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Bentham, Jeremy (1791-01-01), "Political Tactics", The Collected Works of Jeremy Bentham: Political Tactics, Oxford University Press, pp. 182–195, ISBN 9780198207726, retrieved 2019-05-17
- ^ "Tactics of political lying: The Iguanas affair". Journal of Language and Politics. 13 (4): 837–856. 2015-02-11. doi:10.1075/jlp.13.4.11mar. ISSN 1569-2159.
- ^ Brassil, Gillian. "5 Ways Candidates Mislead You in Debates". POLITICO Magazine. Retrieved 2019-05-17.
- ^ Galeotti, Anna E.,. Political self-deception. Cambridge. ISBN 9781108542791. OCLC 1050321262.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Galeotti, Anna Elisabetta (2015). "Liars or Self-Deceived? Reflections on Political Deception". Political Studies. 63 (4): 887–902. doi:10.1111/1467-9248.12122. ISSN 0032-3217.
- ^ a b Triandis, Harry Charalambos, 1926- (2009). Fooling ourselves : self-deception in politics, religion, and terrorism. Westport, Conn.: Praeger Publishers. ISBN 0313364397. OCLC 317883496.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ a b Lorenz, Dagmar C. G., 1948-. Nazi characters in German propaganda and literature. Leiden. ISBN 9789004365254. OCLC 1028830666.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Nazi propaganda : the power and the limitations. Welch, David. London: Routledge, Taylor and Francis. 2015. ISBN 9781317620839. OCLC 890090501.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link) - ^ Welch, David, 1950- (2002). The Third Reich : politics and propaganda (2nd ed ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN 9780203930144. OCLC 191741865.
{{cite book}}:|edition=has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ a b Editors, History com. "Watergate Scandal". HISTORY. Retrieved 2019-05-17.
{{cite web}}:|last=has generic name (help) - ^ "Watergate: The Scandal That Brought Down Richard Nixon". watergate.info. Retrieved 2019-05-17.
- ^ a b "These Are History's Most Notorious Liars". Magazine. 2017-05-20. Retrieved 2019-04-14.
- ^ a b Editors, History com. "Monica Lewinsky Scandal". HISTORY. Retrieved 2019-05-17.
{{cite web}}:|last=has generic name (help) - ^ Owen, Diana (2000). "Popular Politics and the Clinton/Lewinsky Affair: The Implications for Leadership". Political Psychology. 21 (1): 161–177. doi:10.1111/0162-895x.00182. ISSN 0162-895X.
- ^ a b "Could we force politicians to tell the truth?". openDemocracy. Retrieved 2019-05-17.
- ^ a b c "How to Address the Epidemic of Lies in Politics". Scientific American Blog Network. Retrieved 2019-04-14.
- ^ "Is There Anything We Can Do to Stop Politicians from Lying? | History News Network". historynewsnetwork.org. Retrieved 2019-05-17.