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Article Evaluation

Article: Phragmosis

Content

The defensive technique whereby animals barricade their burrows using their bodies (known as phragmosis) is discussed in this article. The article's content is both on topic and well organized, opening with the discovery of the technique before presenting a number of specific, representative examples (anura, aphids and ants). For instance, a thorough description of how ants employ the behaviour is present. With that said, considering only three specific examples are used, it is unclear how common the behaviour is in the animal kingdom. The article might benefit from including information which clarifies how widespread phragmosis really is.

Tone

Generally, the article does not seem to have any issues remaining neutral. Information is presented in an unbiased manner, and language which might suggest opinion is avoided. However, descriptions of the three representative examples mentioned above differ in length. Specifically, there seems to be an empahsis on phragmosis in anura. While this may be due to higher complexity of the behaviour in anura, the length disparity suggests imbalance in the article.

Sources

All information referenced in the article is properly cited with working links. However, there is one specific instance where a necessary citation seems to be absent. Without reference to the relevent literature, the article suggests phragmotic behaviour is most abundant in ants, a statement that should be supported by a citation. Furthermore, for the amount of information provided in the article, the list of references is relatively small. Incorporating additional research would likely improve the accuracy and widen the scope of the article.

Talk Page

This article was actually the subject of a past Wikipedia assignment. As such, the talk page gives insight into the students research and the type of input other editors provide.

Topic Selection/Bibliography

I plan to create a new Wikipedua article titled: Magnetic alignment (animal behaviour).

Sources:

Begall, S., Cerveny, J., Neef, J., Vojtech, O., & Burda, H. (2008)

Burda, H., Marhold, S., Westenberger, T., Wiltschko, R., & Wiltschko, W. (1990)

Dennis, T., Rayner, M., & Walker, M. (2007)

Muheim, R., Edgar, N., Sloan, M., & Phillips, K. (2006)

Rough Draft

The following is a draft of a section I plan on introducing to the existing article: Magnetoreception

Note: Origionally I was going to be starting a new article titled, "Magnetic alignment (animal behaviour)", but there is already a similar article under the name "Magnetoreception" so I will be added a new new section to this article instead.

In amphibians and reptiles

A number of amphibians and reptiles including salamanders, toads and turtles exhibit alignment behaviours with respect to the Earth's magnetic field.

Studies of red spotted newts suggests geomagnetic information is used in salamander orientation. In response to environmental deterioration (experimentally manipulated by changing environmental water temperature), red spotted newts use magnetic north as an orientational reference for fleeing behaviour. Depending on the magnitude of temperature change, these newts use said magnetic information to reach either the shore, or their home environments.

In similar fashion, European and Natterjack toads appear to rely, at least somewhat, on magnetic information for orientation toward breeding sites. When vision and olfaction are experimentally impaired and small magnets are attached to these toads, orientation toward breeding sites is disrupted. It should be noted that these experimental procedures also controlled for the effect of added weight on locomotion. Therefore, magnetoreception appears to be involved in toad oreintation systems.

The majority of research on magnetoreception in reptiles involves turtles. Some of the earliest support for magnetorecetion in turtles came from the discovery of magnetite in the dura mater of Sea Turtle hatchlings. The presence of magnetite suggests a capacity for magnetic feild perception. Furthermore, orientation toward the sea in both Loggerhead and Leatherback hatchlings seems to be influenced by the geomagnetic feild. For instance, the natural directional preferences held by these hatchlings (which lead them from beaches to the sea) reverse upon experimental inversion of the magnetic poles. Magnetoreception may also be present in certain species of freshwater turtles. In particular, studies on Box turtles suggests they may rely on magnetic information in homing. After being trained to swim a particular path, the introduction of a strong magnet is enough to disorient these turtles, rendering them unable to swim the previously mastered route. This suggests magnetic cues serve as reference points in Box turtle swimming.

Peer Review by Munstudent22:

You did a great job organizing your information, your ideas flowed well, and the material was presented in a clear and concise matter. Additionally, you did a great job remaining neutral in your communication of the material. You also seem to have chosen great references.

However, there are a few edits that I would suggest:

1.     There are a few spelling/grammar errors (i.e., “feild” and “a particular paths”)

2.     I would add links to both “fleeing behaviour” and “homing”, if possible.

3.     I think adding media associated with your addition to the article would increase the overall quality of the article.

4.     Most importantly, I would consider expanding your addition to the article. As, it was recommended that we add at least 4 or 5 well structured paragraphs.

Also, after adding your material to the existing article, make sure you remember to update the lead section to reflect your contributions.

Feel free to contact me if you have any questions, or are unsure of what I mean by any of my points. Great job!

Peer Review: Cawhite88

Your contribution is overall well explained and you remain neutral throughout the entire section. The references you used were also reputable and apply well to the subject of magnetoreception in amphibians and reptiles. The structure is very good. The only changes I could suggest are minor corrections to spelling and grammer (ex: Feild to field) and adding extra media such as pictures for this section.

I would also suggest adding more to your contribution. In the "Invertebrates and Fish" section on the "Magnetoreception" page only invertebrates are covered without mentioning any significant fish examples. You could separate those into two sections and give some examples for fish as you did for fish and amphibians.

Final Draft

In invertebrates and fish

Studies of magnetoreception in vertebrate fish have been conducted mainly with salmon. For instance, the presence of an internal magnetic compass has been discovered in Sockeye Salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka). Researchers made this discovery by first placing the young of this species in a symmetrical, circular tank and allowing them to pass through exits in the tank freely. A mean vector was then calculated to represent the directional preferences of these salmon in the natural magnetic field. Notably, when the magnetic field was experimentally rotated, the directional preferences of the young Sockeye Salmon changed accordingly. As such, researchers concluded that the orientation of swimming behaviour in Sockeye Salmon is influenced by magnetic field information.

Further research regarding magnetoreception in salmon has investigated Chinook Salmon (Oncorhynchus tschawytscha). To induce a preference for magnetic East-West, a group of these salmon were housed in a rectangular tank with water flowing from west to east for eighteen months. This group was also fed exclusively at the west end of the tank during this period. Upon placing these same salmon in a circular tank with symmetrical water flow, a preference for aligning their bodies with magnetic East-West was observed as expected. However, when the magnetic field was rotated by 90°, the salmon changed their preferred orientation to the North-South axis. From these results, researchers concluded that Chinook Salmon have the capacity to use magnetic field information in directional orientation.

In amphibians and reptiles

A number of amphibians and reptiles including salamanders, toads and turtles exhibit alignment behaviours with respect to the Earth's magnetic field.

Some of the earliest studies of amphibian magnetoreception were conducted with cave salamanders (Eurycea lucifuga). Researchers housed groups of cave salamanders in corridors aligned with either magnetic North-South, or magnetic East-West. In ensuing tests, the magnetic field was experimentally rotated by 90°, and salamanders were placed in cross-shaped structures (one corridor along the new North-South axis, one along the new East-West axis). Considering salamanders showed a significant preference for test corridors which matched the magnetic alignment of their housing corridors, researchers concluded that cave salamanders have the capacity to detect the Earth’s magnetic field, and have a preference for movement along learned magnetic axes.

Subsequent research has examined magnetoreception in a more natural setting. Under typical circumstances, red-spotted newts (Notophthalmus viridescens) respond to drastic increases in water temperature (which tend to indicate environmental deterioration) by orienting themselves toward the shoreline and heading for land. However, when magnetic fields are experimentally altered, this behaviour is disrupted, and assumed orientations fail to direct the newts to the shoreline. Moreover, the change in orientation corresponds to the degree by which the magnetic field is shifted. In other words, inversion of the magnetic poles (a 180° shift) results in inversion of the typical orientation (a 180° shift). Further research has shown that magnetic information is not only used by red-spotted newts for orientation toward the shoreline, but also in orientation toward their home pools. Ultimately, it seems as though red-spotted newts rely on information regarding the Earth’s magnetic field for navigation within their environment, in particular when orienting toward the shoreline or toward home.

In similar fashion, European (Bufo bufo) and Natterjack (Epidalea calamita) toads appear to rely, at least somewhat, on magnetic information for certain orienting behaviours. These species of anurans are known to rely on vision and olfaction when locating and migrating to breeding sites, but it seems magnetic fields may also play a role. When randomly displaced from their breeding sites, these toads remain well-oriented, and are capable of navigating their way back, even when displaced by more than 150 meters. However, when this displacement is accompanied by the experimental attachment of a small magnetic bars, toads fail to relocate breeding sites. Considering experimental attachment of non-magnetized bars of equal size and weight does not affect relocation, it seems that magnetism is responsible for the observed disorientation of these toads. Therefore, researchers have concluded that orientation toward breeding sites in these anurans is influenced by magnetic field information.

Magnetoreception plays a part in guiding Loggerhead hatchlings to the sea

The majority of study on magnetoreception in reptiles involves turtles. Some of the earliest support for magnetoreception in turtles was found in Terrapene carolina, a species of box turtle. After successfully teaching a group of these box turtles to swim to either the east or west end of an experimental tank, the introduction of a strong magnet into the tank was enough to disrupt the learned routes. As such, the learning of oriented paths seems to rely on some internal magnetic compass possessed by box turtles. Subsequent discovery of magnetite in the dura mater of Sea Turtle hatchlings supported this conclusion, as magnetite provides a means by which magnetic fields may be perceived.

Furthermore, orientation toward the sea, a behaviour commonly seen in hatchlings of a number of turtle species, may rely, in part, on magnetoreception.  In Loggerhead and Leatherback turtles, breeding takes place on beaches, and, after hatching, offspring crawl rapidly to the sea. Although differences in light density seem to drive this behaviour, magnetic alignment may also play a part. For instance, the natural directional preferences held by these hatchlings (which lead them from beaches to the sea) reverse upon experimental inversion of the magnetic poles, suggesting the Earth’s magnetic field serves as a reference for proper orientation.