User:Oahmad2019/Mining in Sierra Leone

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Historical Context

Diamonds were first found in Sierra Leone in the 1930s by British colonialists, with significant mining efforts beginning in 1935.^[1] Sierra Leonean diamonds are renowned for their high quality, and retained a high value on the market.^[2] The colonial government granted exclusive mining rights to the Sierra Leone Selection Trust (SLST).^[3] The De Beers Diamond Constortium, however, quickly took control of the mining trade shortly after and established offices in Freetown, as well as in mining districts around the country (most notable among these was the Kono District).^[1] Under colonial rule, mining efforts were largely controlled and overseen by De Beers, and profits were generally contained to British and European stakeholders. Growth of the mining industry did contribute to the development of mining communities in bettering employment, infrastructure, and social services .^[3]

Despite the control that De Beers had over the industry at the time, many other actors, both internal and external, realized they could accrue a great deal of profits through illicit mining and smuggling of diamonds out of the country.^[1] Very quickly, the illegal diamond trade expanded and a strong pipeline was established between Sierra Leone and Liberia as traders – many of whom were Lebanese – carried diamonds across the border. These illicit mining efforts let local communities realize more of the gains from trading diamonds. In an effort to gain greater control over the diamond industry, the Sierra Leonean government enacted legislation in 1956 that allowed for legal marketing of diamond production within the nation. In doing so, the government granted a monopoly to the De Beers Group, making it a Central Selling Organization (CSO).^[4] However, this only furthered the illicit mining industry, as legitimate diamond exports continued to decline throughout the next several decades.

Seven years after gaining independence, Siaka Stevens was elected Prime Minister of Sierra Leone in 1968. He is regarded as the first person to officially make diamond mining and trading a tool of political power, and encouraged illicit mining under his rule.^[5] He nationalized the diamond mines, including those run by De Beers, and created the National Diamond Mining Company (NDMC). The NDMC gave Stevens and his right-hand man, Jamil Mohammed, unprecedented wealth and power through profits gained in the mining industry. Centralization of the mines and subsequent profits through the 1970s and 1980s drove out much of the corporate mining that was once dominant in Sierra Leone.^[3] It is reported that, under Stevens, legitimate diamond exports dropped from more than two million carats in 1980 to 48,000 carats in 1988.^[1]

As Siaka Stevens’s rule came to its end in 1984, De Beers removed itself from Sierra Leone and sold its remaining shares to the Precious Metals Mining Company which was controlled by Jamil Mohammed. The corruption within the government continued as Stevens’s successor as Prime Minister, Joseph Momoh, took office. Illicit diamond trading prospered and Mohammed, as well as other Lebanese traders who were also tied to the mining efforts, continued receiving funds through the trade in Sierra Leone. In 1987, though, Mohammed was exiled following a failed coup attempt and connections with Lebanese traders faded into the 1990s. This allowed for an influx of Israeli investors and stakeholders to enter the diamond trade in Sierra Leone who had ties with Antwerp, the center of the global diamond market.^[6] The HRD, a Belgian group that structures formal trading agreements of diamonds and monitors diamond trading, retained lackluster standards that allowed traders to smuggle diamonds out of Sierra Leone and sell them to European buyers. The HRD listed a diamond’s country of origin to only be that which it is exported from, which in this case was often Liberia, allowing diamonds to continue being funneled out of the country through its neighboring nation.^[4]

The Role of Diamond Mining in the Civil War

The history of corruption and open government ties to the illegal diamond trade was not well received among the populace, leading to the creation of the Revolutionary United Front (RUF)^[7] and eventually the advent of the Sierra Leone Civil War. This group, made up of soldiers from Sierra Leone and Liberia, led a coup attempt in 1991, beginning a long civil war within the nation which lasted until 2002. Knowing that control of the mines would allow the RUF to fund their revolutionary efforts, much of the fighting was contained in and around the diamond districts. As the civil war continued, the RUF furthered their consolidation of these mines, using the sales of “conflict diamonds” to buy arms and fuel their brutal tactics of warfare.^[4]

In attempts to limit the RUF’s power and access to funds from diamond sales, the United Nations sent peacekeeping forces into Sierra Leone and imposed a worldwide embargo on diamonds exported from Sierra Leone.^[4] This included barring the private diamond industry from buying diamonds which were not certified by the Government of Sierra Leone.

The impacts of the civil war were disastrous for Sierra Leone, leaving tens of thousands dead and towns destroyed. The RUF has been condemned for various war crimes and human rights abuses, including mass killings, widespread rape, and enlisting of underage soldiers.^[1] Moreover, the blood diamond industry continued to thrive, despite the efforts of the UN, with little to none of the profits going back into development of the nation itself.

De Beers and the Diamond Trade in the 2000s

Though De Beers removed itself from Sierra Leone in a formal capacity in 1985^[8], it continues to be involved with the diamond trade through this day. While it outwardly condemned the sale of conflict diamonds throughout the civil war, it received significant criticism in the early 2000s for allegedly buying diamonds from insurgent groups — through outside dealers — to retain its majority share of the diamond market.^[4] In doing so, De Beers was been able to continue setting the market price and hold its dominant position in the industry. In following years, De Beers made several commitments to only buying diamonds when its origin has been officially certified.

Recently, De Beers has taken a more direct approach to working with Sierra Leone in an effort to create a market for ethically-sourced and artisanal diamonds. Its new program, called GemFair, was created alongside the Diamond Development Initiative and centers around a digital monitoring system that traces the origin and history of diamonds.^[9] Starting out as a pilot program in 2018, it included 14 mining sites in the Kono district. GemFair also includes a miner training program that trains workers on fair labor practices and safer working standards. As of 2021, the program has grown to include 160 members.

Diamond Mining in Sierra Leone Today

The creation of the Kimberley Process Certification Scheme in 2003 strove to eradicate the use and trade of conflict diamonds. The Kimberley Process has since been instrumental in sustaining a more robust form of governance over the diamond mining industry both in Sierra Leone, as well as around Africa.

Sierra Leone also maintains a robust legal diamond industry, including both public and private actors. Recently, significant deposits of diamonds, bauxite, iron ore, and gold have been discovered in Sierra Leone which has the potential to bring about significant growth to the economically struggling nation.^[10] The current president of Sierra Leone, Julius Maada Bio, has spoken publicly about his hope that these profits foster robust economic development throughout the country. He announced plans to work with the World Bank and state-run mining agencies to improve extraction processes and increase transparency within the institutions.^[10] In an address to the UK House of Lords, President Bio emphasized his desire to focus on public investments, particularly those in education.^[11] Rather than focusing solely on mining, he has expressed a desire to ensure profits are used effectively and equitably around the nation.

Though the government has expressed this sentiment, there are still ample issues within the mining sector in Sierra Leone. In December of 2022, Amnesty International released a report outlining the human rights abuses which continue in the diamond mining sector in Sierra Leone.^[12] Specifically, it focuses on the practices of Meya Mining in the Kono district, finding the impacts of mining to have led to unsafe water, “dangers to communities living in the vicinity of the mine, and other violations of the socio-economic rights of local people.”

Further, international actors maintain a strong presence in the mining space throughout the country. Israeli-owned BSG Resources has evicted communities from their homes, polluted local water sources, and worked with the government to suppress protests.^[13] Workers, particularly those in the Kono District, make $2-3 working more than ten hours per day. Evidently, the problems of worker exploitation and foreign intervention have yet to disappear from Sierra Leone.

Despite the illegality of diamond smuggling under the Kimberley Process, the illicit diamond trade persists to this day. Hundreds of millions of dollars continue to be made through the illegal sales of diamonds, while Sierra Leone continues to face issues of lacking infrastructure and slow development. Workers continue to be exploited in the industry, and make less than a fraction of what they mine. While eyes are turned to the government to remedy these issues, widespread corruption halts progress from ensuing, with Transparency International rating them 110/180 on their corruption index.^[14]

References

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Johnson, Eric. Blood Diamonds: The Conflict in Sierra Leone. Stanford University, 6 Dec. 2002, https://web.stanford.edu/class/e297a/Conflict%20in%20Sierra%20Leone.htm.
^ Smillie, Ian. “Getting to the Heart of the Matter: Sierra Leone, Diamonds, And Human Security.” Social Justice, vol. 27, no. 4 (82), 2000, pp. 24–31. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/29768032. Accessed 4 May 2023.
^ ^a ^b ^c Wilson, Sigismond Ayodele. “Diamond Exploitation in Sierra Leone 1930 to 2010: A Resource Curse?” GeoJournal, vol. 78, no. 6, 2013, pp. 997–1012. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/24432639. Accessed 4 May 2023.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Reno, William. Sierra Leone and Conflict Diamonds: Establishing a Legal Diamond Trade and Ending Rebel Control Over the Country's Diamond Resources. IU Robert H. McKinney School of Law, 2002, https://mckinneylaw.iu.edu/iiclr/pdf/vol11p633.pdf.
^ Smillie, Ian. “Getting to the Heart of the Matter: Sierra Leone, Diamonds, And Human Security.” Social Justice, vol. 27, no. 4 (82), 2000, pp. 24–31. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/29768032. Accessed 4 May 2023.
^ Smillie, Ian. “Getting to the Heart of the Matter: Sierra Leone, Diamonds, And Human Security.” Social Justice, vol. 27, no. 4 (82), 2000, pp. 24–31. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/29768032. Accessed 4 May 2023.
^ Smillie, Ian. “Getting to the Heart of the Matter: Sierra Leone, Diamonds, And Human Security.” Social Justice, vol. 27, no. 4 (82), 2000, pp. 24–31. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/29768032. Accessed 4 May 2023.
^ Smillie, Ian. “Getting to the Heart of the Matter: Sierra Leone, Diamonds, And Human Security.” Social Justice, vol. 27, no. 4 (82), 2000, pp. 24–31. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/29768032. Accessed 4 May 2023.
^ Nyaungwa, Mathew. “De Beers' GemFair Ropes in More than 160 Sierra Leone Artisanal Miners.” Rough&Polished, 16 Aug. 2021, https://www.rough-polished.com/en/exclusive/122399.html.
^ ^a ^b Kabs-Kanu. “Sierra Leone Discovers New Deposits of Diamonds, Bauxite, Iron Ore , Gold.” Cocorioko, 14 May 2021, https://cocorioko.net/sierra-leone-discovers-new-deposits-of-diamonds-bauxite-iron-ore-gold/.
^ “President Bio Addresses UK House of Lords.” Global Times, 23 Nov. 2022, https://globaltimes-sl.com/2022/11/23/President-Bio-Addr-3/.
^ “Sierra Leone: No Diamond Is Worth the Life of a Community .” Amnesty International, 15 Dec. 2022, https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2022/12/sierra-leone-aucun-diamant-ne-vaut-la-vie-dune-communaute/.
^ (OCCRP), Written by Josef Skrdlik. “Duplicity and Destitution: How Sierra Leone's Artisanal Diamonds Fail to Benefit Local Communities.” OCCRP, https://www.occrp.org/en/blog/17046-duplicity-and-destitution-how-sierra-leones-artisanal-diamonds-fail-to-benefit-local-communities.
^ “Sierra Leone.” Transparency.org, https://www.transparency.org/en/countries/sierra-leone.