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Advaita Vedanta (IAST, Advaita Vedānta; Sanskrit: अद्वैत वेदान्त; literally, not-two) is the oldest extant sub-school of Vedanta – an orthodox (āstika) school of Hindu philosophy and religious practice. Advaita darśana (philosophies, world views, teachings) is one of the classic Indian paths to spiritual realization. It postulates that the true Self – individual soul, Atman (Ātman), shorn off avidya – is the same as the highest reality, Brahman. The phenomenal world is described as an illusory appearance that is other than the real as well as the unreal(sadasadvilakṣaṇa). Advaitins, the followers of Advaita darśana seek Jivanmukti – liberation/release (freedom, liberation) achievable in this lifetime – by the realization (vidyā) that Atman and Brahman are identical.

The principal, though not the first, exponent of the Advaita Vedanta-interpretation was Adi Shankara (8th century CE). Shankara systematized and significantly developed the works of preceding philosophers into a cohesive philosophy. Like all schools of Vedanta, Advaita too derives its philosophy from an unifying interpretation of the Prasthanatrayi, literally the three sources (comprising of the main Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita. In its philosophical formulation, Advaita interprets these texts in a non-dualistic manner for its theories of moksha.

While many scholars describe it as a form of monism, others describe the Advaita philosophy as non-dualistic. Advaita Vedanta texts espouse a spectrum of views from idealism, including illusionism, to realist or nearly realist positions expressed in the early works of Sankara.

Advaita Vedanta developed in a multi-faceted religious and philosophical landscape, in interaction with the other traditions of India such as Jainism and Buddhism. In its history, Advaita influenced and was influenced by various traditions and texts of Hindu philosophies such as Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaishnavism, Shaivism, the Puranas, the Agamas, other sub-schools of Vedanta, as well as social movements such as the Bhakti movement.

Advaita Vedanta is one of the most studied and most influential schools of classical Indian thought. In modern times, due to developments set in motion during the medieval age with Hindu responses to Muslim rule, and further developed and made mainstream by the so-called neo-Vedantins and Hindu nationalists during the colonial times, Advaita Vedanta has acquired a broad acceptance in Indian culture and beyond as the paradigmatic example of Hindu spirituality.

Textual authority

Prasthanatrayi

The Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavadgita and constitute the basis of Vedanta. Scholars of Advaita Vedanata, like those of all other schools of Vedanta, propound their philosophy by interpreting these texts, collectively called the Prasthanatrayi, literally, three sources.

1. The Upanishads, or Śruti prasthāna; considered the Sruti (Vedic scriptures) foundation of Vedanta. Most scholars, states Eliot Deutsch, are convinced that the Śruti in general, and the Upanishads in particular, express "a very rich diversity" of ideas, with the early Upanishads such as Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and Chandogya Upanishad being more readily amenable to Advaita Vedanta school's interpretation than the middle or later Upanishads. In addition to the oldest Upanishads, states Williams, the Sannyasa Upanishads group composed in pre-Shankara times "express a decidedly Advaita outlook".
2. The Brahma Sutras, or Nyaya prasthana / Yukti prasthana; considered the reason-based foundation of Vedanta. The Brahma Sutras attempted to synthesize the teachings of the Upanishads. The diversity in the teaching of the Upanishads necessitated the systematization of these teachings. The only extant version of this synthesis is the Brahma Sutras of Badarayana. Like the Upanishads, Brahma Sutras is also an aphoristic text, and can be interpreted as non-theistic Advaita Vedanta text or as theistic Dvaita Vedanta text. This has led, states Stephen Phillips, to its varying interpretations by scholars of various sub-schools of Vedanta. The Brahmasutra is considered by the Advaita school as the Nyaya Prasthana (canonical base for reasoning).
3. The Bhagavad Gita, or Smriti prasthāna; considered the Smriti (remembered tradition) foundation of Vedanta. It has been widely studied by Advaita scholars, including a commentary by Adi Shankara.

The possibility of different interpretations of the Vedic literature, states Arvind Sharma, was recognized by ancient Indian scholars. Adi Shankara gave a non-dualist interpretation of these texts in his commentaries. His Bhashyas (commentaries) have become the central texts in the Advaita Vedanta philosophy. The subsequent Advaita tradition has further elaborated on these sruti and commentaries.

Siddhi-granthas

Additionally there are five Siddhi-granthas that are taught in the Advaita-parampara, after study of the Prasthana-trayi:

1. Brahmasiddhi by Mandana Mishra (750–850 CE),
2. Naishkarmasiddhi by Sureswara, a disciple of Sankara (8th century CE) ,
3. Ishtasiddhi by Vimuktananda (1200 CE)
4. Advaita Siddhi, written by Madhusudana Saraswati (1565-1665 CE)
5. Svarajyasiddhi by Gangadharendra Saraswati (1800 CE)

History of Advaita Vedanta

Adi Shankara with Disciples, by Raja Ravi Varma (1904)

Advaita Vedanta existed prior to Shankara, but found its most influential expounder in Adi Shankara.

Pre-Shankara Advaita Vedanta

Almost nothing is known of the Vedanta-school before the composition of the Brahma Sutras (400–450 CE). The two Advaita writings of pre-Shankara period, known to scholars such as Nakamura in the first half of 20th-century, were the Vākyapadīya, written by Bhartṛhari (second half 5th century), and the Māndūkya-kārikā written by Gaudapada (7th century CE).

Earliest Vedanta - Upanishads and Brahma Sutras

Main article: Brahma Sutras

See also: Vedas, Upanishads, and Darsanas

The Upanishads form the basic texts, of which Vedanta gives an interpretation. The Upanishads don't contain "a rigorous philosophical inquiry identifying the doctrines and formulating the supporting arguments". This philosophical inquiry was performed by the darsanas, the various philosophical schools.

The Brahma Sutras of Bādarāyana, also called the Vedanta Sutra, is a critical study of the teachings of the Upanishads. It was and is a guide-book for the great teachers of the Vedantic systems. These sutras were compiled in its present form around 400–450 CE, but "the great part of the Sutra must have been in existence much earlier than that". Estimates of the date of Bādarāyana's lifetime differ between 200 BCE and 200 CE. Bādarāyana was, however, not the first person to systematise the teachings of the Upanishads. Brahma Sutras just happen to be the oldest extant work.

Between Brahma Sutras and Shankara

According to Nakamura, "there must have been an enormous number of other writings turned out in this period, but unfortunately all of them have been scattered or lost and have not come down to us today". In his commentaries, Shankara mentions 99 different predecessors of his Sampradaya. In the beginning of his commentary on the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad Shankara salutes the teachers of the Brahmavidya Sampradaya. Pre-Shankara doctrines and sayings can be traced in the works of the later schools, which does give insight into the development of early Vedanta philosophy.

The names of various important early Vedanta thinkers have been listed in the Siddhitraya by Yamunācārya (c.1050), the Vedārthasamgraha by Rāmānuja (c.1050–1157), and the Yatīndramatadīpikā by Śrīnivāsa-dāsa. Combined together, at least fourteen thinkers are known to have existed between the composition of the Brahman Sutras and Shankara's lifetime.

Although Shankara is often considered to be the founder of the Advaita Vedanta school, according to Nakamura, comparison of the known teachings of these early Vedantins and Shankara's thought shows that most of the characteristics of Shankara's thought "were advocated by someone before Śankara". Shankara "was the person who synthesized the Advaita-vāda which had previously existed before him". In this synthesis, he was the rejuvenator and defender of ancient learning. He was an unequalled commentator, due to whose efforts and contributions the Advaita Vedanta assumed a dominant position within Indian philosophy.

Gaudapada and Māṇḍukya Kārikā

Main article: Gaudapada

Statue of Gaudapada, the first historical proponent of Advaita Vedanta

Gaudapada (6th century) was the teacher of Govinda Bhagavatpada and the grandteacher of Shankara. Gaudapada uses the concepts of Ajativada and Maya to establish "that from the level of ultimate truth the world is a cosmic illusion," and "and suggests that the whole of our waking experience is exactly the same as an illusory and insubstantial dream." In contrast, Adi Shankara insists upon a distinction between waking experience and dreams.

Gaudapada wrote or compiled the Māṇḍukya Kārikā, also known as the Gauḍapāda Kārikā and as the Āgama Śāstra. The Māṇḍukya Kārikā is a commentary in verse form on the Mandukya Upanishad, one of the shortest but most profound Upanishads, or mystical Vedas, consisting of just 13 prose sentences. The Māṇḍukya Kārikā is the earliest extent systematic treatise on Advaita Vedānta,. It was, however, not the oldest work to present Advaita views, nor the only pre-Sankara work with the same type of teachings. In Shankara's time it was considered to be a Śruti, but not particularly important. In later periods it acquired a higher status, and eventually it was regarded as expressing the essence of the Upanisad philosophy.

Adi Shankara

Main article: Adi Shankara

Adi Shankara (788–820), also known as Śaṅkara Bhagavatpādācārya and Ādi Śaṅkarācārya, represents a turning point in the development of Vedanta. Amidst the growing influence of Buddhism in India, Shankara synthesized and rejuvenated the doctrine of Advaita. Using Prasthanatrayi and the Kārikā as the basis, Shankara further developed and refined the doctrines of Gaudapada and other predecessors of the Advaita school. His thematic focus extended beyond metaphysics and soteriology to place a strong emphasis on Pramanas (epistemology or "means to gain knowledge"), reasoning methods that empower one to gain reliable knowledge.

Shankara devised a unique exegetical approach, where he integrated the methodology of Samanvayat Tatparya Linga previously used in the theoretical works of Nyaya school with Anvaya-Vyatireka (anvaya means "connection, association"-; vyatireka means "distinction, separateness, exclusion"), to correctly understand a text. This philosophical difference in scriptural studies, helped Shankara conclude that the Principal Upanishads primarily teach non-dualism with teachings such as Tat tvam asi. Attending to the Samanvayat Tatparya Linga entails critically examining six characteristics of the text under consideration:

1. The common in Upakrama (introductory statement) and Upasamhara (conclusions)
2. Abhyasa (message repeated)
3. Apurvata (unique proposition or novelty)
4. Phala (fruit or result derived)
5. Arthavada (explained meaning, praised point)
6. Yukti (verifiable reasoning).

Anvaya-Vyatireka means that for proper textual understanding, one must "accept only meanings that are compatible with all characteristics" and "exclude meanings that are incompatible with any". Not everything in any text, states Shankara, has equal weight and some ideas are the essence of any expert's textual testimony.

Mayeda (2006, pp. 46–47), citing Shankara's statements emphasizing epistemology (pramana-janya) in section 1.18.133 of Upadesasahasri and section 1.1.4 of Brahmasutra-bhasya, states that Shankara maintained the need for objectivity in the process of gaining knowledge (vastutantra), and considered subjective opinions (purushatantra) and injunctions in Śruti (codanatantra) as secondary. Merrell-Wolff and other scholars don't agree that Shankara considers Śruti as secondary. They maintain that Shankara accepts Vedas and Upanishads as a source of knowledge as he develops his philosophical theses, yet he never rests his case on the ancient texts, rather proves each thesis, point by point using pranamas (epistemology), reason and experience.

Historical context

See also Late-Classical Age and Hinduism Middle Ages

Shankara lived in the time of the so-called "Late classical Hinduism", which lasted from 650 till 1100 CE. This era was one of political instability that followed Gupta dynasty and King Harsha of the 7th century CE. It was a time of social and cultural change as the ideas of Buddhism, Jainism and various traditions within Hinduism were competing for members. Buddhism in particular influenced in India's spiritual traditions in the first 700 years of the 1st millennium CE. Shankara, and his contemporaries, made a significant contribution in understanding Buddhism and the ancient Vedic traditions, then transforming the extant ideas, particularly reforming the Vedanta tradition of Hinduism, making it India's most important tradition for more than a thousand years.

Writings

Main article: Adi Shankara bibliography

Adi Shankara is most known for his systematic reviews and commentaries (Bhasyas) on ancient Indian texts. Shankara's masterpiece of commentary is the Brahmasutrabhasya (literally, commentary on Brahma Sutra), a fundamental text of the Vedanta school of Hinduism. His commentaries on ten Mukhya (principal) Upanishads are also considered authentic by scholars. Other authentic works of Shankara include commentaries on the Bhagavad Gita (part of his Prasthana Trayi Bhasya).

Shankara's Vivarana (tertiary notes) on the commentary by Vedavyasa on Yogasutras as well as those on Apastamba Dharma-sũtras (Adhyatama-patala-bhasya) are accepted by scholars as authentic works of Adi Shankara. Among the Stotra (poetic works), the Daksinamurti Stotra, the Bhajagovinda Stotra, the Sivanandalahari, the Carpata-panjarika, the Visnu-satpadi, the Harimide, the Dasa-shloki, and the Krishna-staka are likely to be authentic. He also authored Upadesasahasri, his most important original philosophical work. Of other original Prakaranas (प्रकरण, monographs, treatise), seventy six works are attributed to Adi Shankara. Modern era Indian scholars such as Belvalkar as well as Upadhyaya accept five and thirty nine works respectively as authentic.

Commentaries on Nrisimha-Purvatatapaniya and Shveshvatara Upanishads are attributed to Adi Shankara, but their authenticity is highly doubtful. Similarly, commentaries on several early and later Upanishads attributed to Shankara are rejected by scholars to be his works, and are likely works of later Advaita Vedanta scholars; these include: Kaushitaki Upanishad, Maitri Upanishad, Kaivalya Upanishad, Paramahamsa Upanishad, Sakatayana Upanishad, Mandala Brahmana Upanishad, Maha Narayana Upanishad, Gopalatapaniya Upanishad.

The authenticity of Shankara being the author of Vivekacūḍāmaṇi has been questioned, but scholars generally credit it to him. The authorship of Shankara of his Mandukya Upanishad Bhasya and his supplementary commentary on Gaudapada's Māṇḍukya Kārikā has been disputed by Nakamura. However, other scholars state that the commentary on Mandukya, which is actually a commentary on Madukya-Karikas by Gaudapada, may be authentic.

Influence of Shankara

Shankara has an unparallelled status in the tradition of Advaita Vedanta. He travelled all over India to help restore the study of the Vedas. His teachings and tradition form the basis of Smartism and have influenced Sant Mat lineages. He introduced the Pañcāyatana form of worship, the simultaneous worship of five deities – Ganesha, Surya, Vishnu, Shiva and Devi. Shankara explained that all deities were but different forms of the one Brahman, the invisible Supreme Being.

Benedict Ashley credits Adi Shankara for unifying two seemingly disparate philosophical doctrines in Hinduism, namely Atman and Brahman. Isaeva (1992, p. 2) states Shankara's influence included reforming Hinduism, founding monasteries, edifying disciples, disputing opponents and engaging in philosophic activity that, in the eyes of Indian tradition, help revive "the orthodox idea of the unity of all beings" and Vedanta thought.

Some scholars doubt Shankara's early influence in India. According to King and Roodurmun, until the 10th century Shankara was overshadowed by his older contemporary Mandana-Misra, the latter considered to be the major representative of Advaita. Other scholars state that the historical records for this period are unclear, and little reliable information is known about the various contemporaries and disciples of Shankara.

Several scholars suggest that the historical fame and cultural influence of Shankara grew centuries later, particularly during the era of Muslim invasions and consequent devastation of India. Many of Shankara's biographies were created and published in and after the 14th century, such as the widely cited Vidyaranya's Śankara-vijaya. Vidyaranya, also known as Madhava, who was the 12th Jagadguru of the Śringeri Śarada Pītham from 1380 to 1386, inspired the re-creation of the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire of South India in response to the devastation caused by the Islamic Delhi Sultanate. He and his brothers, suggest Paul Hacker and other scholars, wrote about Śankara as well as extensive Advaitic commentaries on Vedas and Dharma. Vidyaranya was a minister in Vijayanagara Empire and enjoyed royal support, and his sponsorship and methodical efforts helped establish Shankara as a rallying symbol of values, and helped spread historical and cultural influence of Shankara's Vedanta philosophies. Vidyaranya also helped establish monasteries (mathas) to expand the cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedanta.

Sureśvara and Maṇḍana Miśra

Main articles: Sureśvara and Maṇḍana Miśra

Sureśvara (fl. 800-900 CE) and Maṇḍana Miśra were contemporaries of Shankara, Sureśvara often (incorrectly) being identified with Maṇḍana Miśra. Both explained Sankara "on the basis of their personal convictions." Sureśvara has also been credited as the founder of a pre-Shankara branch of Advaita Vedanta.

Maṇḍana Miśra was a Mimamsa scholar and a follower of Kumarila, but who also wrote a work on Advaita, the Brahma-siddhi. According to tradition, Maṇḍana Miśra and his wife were defeated by Shankara in a debate, where-after he became a follower of Shankara. Yet, his attitude toward Shankara is that of a "self-confident rival teacher of Advaita," and his influence was such, that some regard this work to have "set forth a non-Sankaran brand of Advaita." The "theory of error" set forth in the Brahma-siddhi became the normative Advaita Vedanta theory of error. It was Vachaspati Misra's commentary on this work which linked it up with Shankara's teaching.

Hiriyanna and Kuppuswami Sastra have pointed out that Sureśvara and Maṇḍana Miśra had different views on various doctrinal points:

• The locus of avidya: according to Maṇḍana Miśra, the individual jiva is the locus of avidya, whereas Suresvara contents that avidya regarding Brahman is located in Brahman. These two different stances are also reflected in the opposing positions of the Bhamati school and the Vivarana school.
• Liberation: according to Maṇḍana Miśra, the knowledge which arises from the Mahavakya is insufficient for liberation. Only the direct realization of Brahma is liberating, which can only be attained by meditation. According to Suresvara, this knowledge is directly liberating, while meditation is at best a useful aid.

Advaita Vedanta sub-schools

After Shankara's death several subschools developed. Two of them still exist today, the Bhāmatī and the Vivarana. Perished schools are the Pancapadika and Istasiddhi, which were replaced by Prakasatman's Vivarana-school.

These schools worked out the logical implications of various Advaita doctrines. Two of the problems they encountered were the further interpretations to the concepts of māyā and avidya.

Padmapada - Pancapadika school

Padmapada (c. 800 CE) was a direct disciple of Shankara, who wrote the Pancapadika, a commentary on the Sankara-bhaya. Padmapada diverted from Shankara in his description of avidya, designating prakrti as avidya or ajnana.

Vachaspati Misra - Bhamati school

Main articles: Bhamati and Vācaspati Miśra

Vachaspati Misra (c.800-900 CE) wrote the Brahmatattva-samiksa, a commentary on Maṇḍana Miśra's Brahma-siddhi, which provides the link between Mandana Misra and Shankara, attempting to harmonise Sankara's thought with that of Mandana Misra. According to Advaita tradition, Shankara reincarnated as Vachaspati Misra "to popularise the Advaita System through his Bhamati." Only two works are known of Vachaspati Misra, the Brahmatattva-samiksa on Maṇḍana Miśra's Brahma-siddhi, and his Bhamati on the Sankara-bhasya, Shankara's commentary on the Brahma-sutras. The name of the Bhamati-subschool is derived from this Bhamati.

The Bhamati-school takes an ontological approach. It sees the Jiva as the source of avidya. It sees meditation as the main factor in the acquirement of liberation, while the study of the Vedas and reflection are additional factors.

Prakasatman - Vivarana school

Main article: Vivarana

Prakasatman (c.1200-1300) wrote the Pancapadika-Vivarana, a commentary on the Pancapadika by Padmapadacharya. The Vivarana lends its name to the subsequent school. According to Roodurmum, "his line of thought [...] became the leitmotif of all subsequent developments in the evolution of the Advaita tradition."

The Vivarana-school takes an epistemological approach. Prakasatman was the first to propound the theory of mulavidya or maya as being of "positive beginning-less nature", and sees Brahman as the source of avidya. Critics object that Brahman is pure consciousness, so it can't be the source of avidya. Another problem is that contradictory qualities, namely knowledge and ignorance, are attributed to Brahman.

Vimuktatman - Ista-Siddhi

Vimuktatman (c.1200 CE) wrote the Ista-siddhi. It is one of the four traditional siddhi, together with Mandana's Brahma-siddhi, Suresvara's Naiskarmya-siddhi, and Madusudana's Advaita-siddhi. According to Vimuktatman, absolute Reality is "pure intuitive consciousness." His school of thought was eventually replaced by Prakasatman's Vivarana school.

Later Advaita Vedanta tradition

See also: Dashanami Sampradaya and List of teachers of Advaita Vedanta

According to Sangeetha Menon, prominent names in the later Advaita tradition are:

• Prakāsātman, Vimuktātman, Sarvajñātman (tenth century),
• Śrī Harṣa, Citsukha (twelfth century),
• ānandagiri, Amalānandā (thirteenth century),
• Vidyāraņya, Śaṅkarānandā (fourteenth century),
• Sadānandā (fifteenth century),
• Prakāṣānanda, Nṛsiṁhāśrama (sixteenth century),
• Madhusūdhana Sarasvati, Dharmarāja Advarindra, Appaya Dīkśita (seventeenth century),
• Sadaśiva Brahmendra (eighteenth century),
• Candraśekhara Bhārati, Chandrasekharendra Saraswati Swamigal, Sacchidānandendra Saraswati (twentieth century).

Contemporary teachers are the orthodox Jagadguru of Sringeri Sharada Peetham; the more traditional teachers Sivananda Saraswati (1887–1963), Chinmayananda Saraswati, and Dayananda Saraswati (Arsha Vidya); and less traditional teachers like Narayana Guru.

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