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The effect of sport on social competence

The effect of sport on social competence in children refers to the way sport influences the learning of social skills involved in dealing with social contexts and responding to circumstances in a meaningful way.^[1]

Sport is an activity or game that contains regulations and requires physical endeavour, often played for fun or sometimes as a profession.^[2] Sports can have a positive impact on children due to the influence sports have on the skills involved in social competence.^[3]

Social competence can be defined as the way a child is able to deal and cope with social contexts successfully and react to situations in an appropriate and meaningful manner.^[4] Social competence plays an important role in society as it helps keep the community fully functioning.^[1] During childhood, children gain an understanding of how to socially interact with others and this comes from skills involved in social competence; these include leadership, teamwork, communication, empathy and prosocial behaviour.^[1] All these skills influence a child's social relations and ability to interact with others, particularly in certain social environments.^[1]

Participation in sports influences children's social abilities which in turn affects social competence; therefore sport participation may have an affect in school environments as it improves a child's psychosocial health and their ability to interact with other children.^[3]

Theoretical background

Social Information Processing Theory

Social Information Processing Theory relates to social competence by explaining how individuals deal with social contexts, the way they comprehend social cues and the social behaviour they respond with.^[5] The process involves sequential stages: encoding, interpretation, response search, response evaluation and enactment; all of which relate to social competence through which the theory illustrates the transactional relationship between the social surrounding and individuals.^[5]

Social Learning Theory

Social Learning Theory developed by Bandura^[6] suggests that through observational learning we acquire and learn social skills. The mediational processes involved in this process of learning are: attention (seeing the behaviour), retention (remembering the behaviour), reproduction (the ability to reproduce the behaviour) and motivation (the need to reproduce the behaviour).^[7] This theory links to social competence; being in certain environments individuals observe the way people behave in social situations and enact the behaviour. This contributes to the learning of social skills involved in social competence.^[7]

Effect of sport on social skills

Leadership

Sports have been shown to have an influence on leadership (an element within social competence) and research shows that by increasing sports participation there will be an advance in a child's leadership skills.^[8] By playing sports at a young age, children are given the opportunity to work with others and practice roles that advance their leadership skills in social situations.^[9] As illustrated by Bandura^[6], parents acting as role models play an important role in a child's life; encouraging their children from a young age to participate in sports helps to provide a pathway for leadership development and formation.^[9] The research around this particular aspect (leadership) lacks evidence from diverse countries as the majority of research is from developed countries rather than a combination of developing and developed countries. However, the research does measure the effect of sport on the social skill leadership (a construct linked to social competence) as many variables are controlled so the validity is increased.

Teamwork

When children participate in team sports they are provided with a structured environment in which they can converse with peers and co-operate with others; this provides a sense of community which helps children build upon and improve their teamwork.^[10] Through participating in sports teams, children learn how to interact with others effectively.^[8] They also learn how to coordinate, adapt and communicate with others while working together as a team.^[8] By participating in these activities, social skills are learnt through observing interactions within the team which leads to a better social competence.^[8] Research has been conducted across cultures including developed countries for example the UK^[10] and developing countries for example, South Africa^[11] meaning there is evidence for the effect of teamwork in varying environments. However, research has shown a geographical gap in this field of research as studies across a range of countries is limited and the majority of studies exploring the effect of sport on social competence have been conducted in developed countries like the UK.^[10] This means interventions developed cannot be tailored to specific cultures ^[10] and sports may influence different cultures in varying ways.

Communication

Sport has been shown to influence communication as it enables children to react to their environment and present their social point of view.^[12] Communication is a key part of sports and contributes to the success of a team and playing sports provides an environment for children to improve communication efficacy.^[13] A coach helps the children learn communication skills through conversing with them and discussing feedback.^[14] Additionally, when participating in sports children are able to interact in a group which helps them deal with conflict resolution and work with others to achieve goals.^[10] Through this process, children gain interpersonal skills including learning how to communicate successfully with others.^[10] Some of the research in communication uses a small sample and so in relation to generalisability are lacking in the number of participants to represent wider populations. However, a review combined a large number of participants and examined multiple studies and showed that sports does provide a pathway to the development of communication skills meaning there is evidence to represent wider populations.^[13]

Empathy

Participating in sport builds social bonds among children as they are surrounded by a supportive environment. This fosters social abilities to empathise with others.^[10] Shima et al. ^[15] found a positive correlation between the two factors (empathy and sport), showing that participating in sports leads to a better cognitive empathy regardless of the type of sport played or degree of success within the sport. This exerts an influence on children in particular as a higher cognitive empathy will affect them in school environments as they will be able to relate with their classmates and have a more meaningful interaction.^[15] However, correlational research does not provide a causal explanation as other confounding variables may affect empathy for example, family environment.^[15] This reduces the potential for the study to be applied to a range of contexts. On the other hand, experimental research has demonstrated that sports classes increase empathetic skills among children meaning causation can be established due to the control within experimental research.^[16]

Prosocial behaviour

Prosocial behaviour refers to when individuals voluntarily choose to assist others for example helping or co-operating with them.^[17] When participating in sports, sociomoral reasoning in teams and having a good relationship with the coach has an effect on prosocial behaviour.^[18] A systematic review by Li and Shao ^[17] showed the positive effects physical activity can have on children's prosocial behaviour. When participating in sport activities, children have to interact with a variety of individuals which helps them improve their prosocial behaviour by understanding how to interact with individuals in different settings through communication and co-operation.^[17] This proposal has a range of evidence as studies around sport and prosocial behaviour have been conducted in a variety of cultures (collectivist and individualist) for example: India, United States, China, Germany.^[17] Additionally, the influence of sport on prosocial behaviour is applicable in current contexts due to the recency of the studies, within the last 10 years.^[17] However, a contextual gap within this field is that there is limited evidence on how prosocial behaviour learnt from sports progress over time including into adulthood.^[10]

Social competence

These aspects: leadership, teamwork, communication, empathy and prosocial behaviour are social skills required in social competence; they help initiate meaningful interactions with peers which contributes to successful social interactions.^[1] These factors show that physical activity has a positive influence on social competence within children as behaviour is learnt and applied to other contexts.^[19] Based on evidence, an improved social competence and social skills has an impact in school environments as it leads to meaningful interactions which results in a higher social regard among friends and peers.^[9]

Research Issues and Methods

Ethical issues

When researching into the effect of sports on a child’s social competence ethical issues arise. The main issue is informed consent, in experimental research it is essential for parents to give consent on behalf of the child and the child should be protected from harm.^[20] The parent should be made fully aware of what the study entails, the risks and the benefits and they should be given the right to withdraw their child at any point.^[20]

Culture

Among research exploring the effect of sport on social skills (linked to social competence) there is a pattern, relating to the geographical gap in this field of research, as many of the studies have been conducted in developed countries.^[10] Due to the limited research of the topic in varying demographics causation cannot be determined and neither can generalisations among a widespread population. Future research on this topic should focus on broadening the sample size to a wider number of populations to increase generalisation.

Application

Work Environment

Research on social competence and the skills involved have a long-term influence on an individual and can be applied to real world contexts; by encouraging children to play sports during childhood, research has shown it has a later effect on adulthood and social outcomes which in turn positively affect a work environment.^[21] In relation to the skill of leadership individuals who played sport at a younger age may see work ethic as a manner of receiving respect, being a role model and furthering their ability in the job at hand.^[9] The development of skills including teamwork and leadership qualities can be utilised when entering the job market as many may lack leadership and through sports gain these elements that employers look for.^[8]

Intervention

Interventions can be developed to encourage children to participate in sports.^[19] This will help to improve leadership, teamwork, communication, empathy and prosocial behaviour which in turn will improve social competence in children. The encouragement of physical activity is expected to improve social competence in children, specifically the aspect of prosocial behaviour.^[17] This influences school environments as research has shown intervention programmes have a positive effect on social competence meaning children will be able to have meaningful interactions with other children and respond to situations in an appropriate manner.^[19]

Future Direction

As the current research on the causal link of sport on social competence and in particular social benefits is still limited.^[22] The future direction for research should explore in more depth the varying effect among different cultures to establish if there is a universal explanation of the effect of sport on social competence in children.
Another area to explore is if different types of sport, for example team sports versus individual sports, influence social competence and the social skills within.
A final dimension to investigate is if sport affects social skills among children with disabilities. The future research on this topic could lead to interventions and methods to help the learning of these skills for children with disabilities.

By exploring these factors, it will enable an in depth understanding of how social competence is affected as well as helping to establish all elements related to how sport influences social competence.

References

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Junge, C., Valkenburg, P. M., Deković, M., & Branje, S. (2020). The building blocks of social competence: Contributions of the Consortium of Individual Development. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 45(1), 100861. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2020.100861
^ Cambridge Dictionary. (2019). SPORT | meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary. Cambridge.org. https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/sport
^ ^a ^b Bedard, C., Hanna, S., & Cairney, J. (2020). A Longitudinal Study of Sport Participation and Perceived Social Competence in Youth. Journal of Adolescent Health, 66(3). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2019.09.017
^ American Psychological Association. (2023). APA Dictionary of Psychology. Dictionary.apa.org. https://dictionary.apa.org/social-competence
^ ^a ^b Dodge, K. A. (2010). The Development of Emotion Regulation and Dysregulation (pp. 159–181). Cambridge University Press.
^ ^a ^b Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory.
^ ^a ^b Rumjaun, A., & Narod, F. (2020). Social learning theory—albert bandura. Springer Texts in Education, 1(1), 85–99. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-43620-9_7
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Creo, E. de P., Mareque, M., & Portela-Pino, I. (2020). The acquisition of teamwork skills in university students through extra-curricular activities. Education + Training, 63(2), 165–181. https://doi.org/10.1108/ET-07-2020-0185
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Wright, A., & Côté, J. (2003). A Retrospective Analysis of Leadership Development through Sport. The Sport Psychologist, 17(3), 268–291. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.17.3.268
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Jones, D. (2024). Impact of Team Sports Participation on Social Skills Development in Youth. American Journal of Recreation and Sports, 3(2), 24–34. https://doi.org/10.47672/ajrs.2400
^ Spaaij, R. (2009). The social impact of sport: diversities, complexities and contexts. Sport in Society, 12(9), 1109–1117. https://doi.org/10.1080/17430430903137746
^ Ozturk, O. T., Ozbey, S., & Camliyer, H. (2015). Impact of Sport-related Games on High School Students’ Communication Skills. Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research, 67(1), 53–64. https://doi.org/10.1515/pcssr-2015-0017
^ ^a ^b Andrew W., I. (2017). Communication in Sports Teams: A Review. Communication Research Trends, 36(4), 4–38. ProQuest.
^ Gould, D., & Carson, S. (2008). Life skills development through sport: current status and future directions. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 1(1), 58–78. https://doi.org/10.1080/17509840701834573
^ ^a ^b ^c Shima, T., Tai, K., Nakao, H., Shimofure, T., Arai, Y., Kiyama, K., & Onizawa, Y. (2021). Association between self-reported empathy and sport experience in young adults. Journal of Physical Education and Sport, 21(1). https://doi.org/10.7752/jpes.2021.01009
^ Oumayma Slimi, Marsigliante, S., Ciardo, V., Mourad Bahloul, Selmi, O., Nidhal Jebabli, & Muscella, A. (2023). The effects of adapted physical education sessions on the empathy of female students with overweight. Frontiers in Psychology, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1170446
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Li, J., & Shao, W. (2022). Influence of Sports Activities on Prosocial Behavior of Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Literature Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(11). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19116484
^ Rutten, E. A., Stams, G. J. J. M., Biesta, G. J. J., Schuengel, C., Dirks, E., & Hoeksma, J. B. (2007). The Contribution of Organized Youth Sport to Antisocial and Prosocial Behavior in Adolescent Athletes. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36(3), 255–264. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-006-9085-y
^ ^a ^b ^c Schüller, I., & Demetriou, Y. (2018). Physical activity interventions promoting social competence at school: A systematic review. Educational Research Review, 25, 39–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2018.09.001
^ ^a ^b Rothstein, M. A., & Shoben, A. B. (2013). Does Consent Bias Research? The American Journal of Bioethics, 13(4), 27–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2013.767955
^ Eather, N., Wade, L., Pankowiak, A., & Eime, R. (2023). The Impact of Sports Participation on Mental Health and Social Outcomes in adults: a Systematic Review and the “Mental Health through Sport” Conceptual Model. Systematic Reviews, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-023-02264-8
^ Eime, R. M., Young, J. A., Harvey, J. T., Charity, M. J., & Payne, W. R. (2013). A Systematic Review of the Psychological and Social Benefits of Participation in Sport for Children and adolescents: Informing Development of a Conceptual Model of Health through Sport. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 10(1), 98. https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-10-98

[:1-1] Junge, C., Valkenburg, P. M., Deković, M., & Branje, S. (2020). The building blocks of social competence: Contributions of the Consortium of Individual Development. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 45(1), 100861. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2020.100861

[2] Cambridge Dictionary. (2019). SPORT | meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary. Cambridge.org. https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/sport

[:2-3] Bedard, C., Hanna, S., & Cairney, J. (2020). A Longitudinal Study of Sport Participation and Perceived Social Competence in Youth. Journal of Adolescent Health, 66(3). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2019.09.017

[4] American Psychological Association. (2023). APA Dictionary of Psychology. Dictionary.apa.org. https://dictionary.apa.org/social-competence

[:3-5] Dodge, K. A. (2010). The Development of Emotion Regulation and Dysregulation (pp. 159–181). Cambridge University Press.

[:0-6] Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory.

[:4-7] Rumjaun, A., & Narod, F. (2020). Social learning theory—albert bandura. Springer Texts in Education, 1(1), 85–99. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-43620-9_7

[:5-8] Creo, E. de P., Mareque, M., & Portela-Pino, I. (2020). The acquisition of teamwork skills in university students through extra-curricular activities. Education + Training, 63(2), 165–181. https://doi.org/10.1108/ET-07-2020-0185

[:6-9] Wright, A., & Côté, J. (2003). A Retrospective Analysis of Leadership Development through Sport. The Sport Psychologist, 17(3), 268–291. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.17.3.268

[:7-10] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Jones, D. (2024). Impact of Team Sports Participation on Social Skills Development in Youth. American Journal of Recreation and Sports, 3(2), 24–34. https://doi.org/10.47672/ajrs.2400

[11] Spaaij, R. (2009). The social impact of sport: diversities, complexities and contexts. Sport in Society, 12(9), 1109–1117. https://doi.org/10.1080/17430430903137746

[12] Ozturk, O. T., Ozbey, S., & Camliyer, H. (2015). Impact of Sport-related Games on High School Students’ Communication Skills. Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research, 67(1), 53–64. https://doi.org/10.1515/pcssr-2015-0017

[:8-13] Andrew W., I. (2017). Communication in Sports Teams: A Review. Communication Research Trends, 36(4), 4–38. ProQuest.

[14] Gould, D., & Carson, S. (2008). Life skills development through sport: current status and future directions. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 1(1), 58–78. https://doi.org/10.1080/17509840701834573

[:9-15] Shima, T., Tai, K., Nakao, H., Shimofure, T., Arai, Y., Kiyama, K., & Onizawa, Y. (2021). Association between self-reported empathy and sport experience in young adults. Journal of Physical Education and Sport, 21(1). https://doi.org/10.7752/jpes.2021.01009

[16] Oumayma Slimi, Marsigliante, S., Ciardo, V., Mourad Bahloul, Selmi, O., Nidhal Jebabli, & Muscella, A. (2023). The effects of adapted physical education sessions on the empathy of female students with overweight. Frontiers in Psychology, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1170446

[:10-17] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Li, J., & Shao, W. (2022). Influence of Sports Activities on Prosocial Behavior of Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Literature Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(11). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19116484

[18] Rutten, E. A., Stams, G. J. J. M., Biesta, G. J. J., Schuengel, C., Dirks, E., & Hoeksma, J. B. (2007). The Contribution of Organized Youth Sport to Antisocial and Prosocial Behavior in Adolescent Athletes. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36(3), 255–264. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-006-9085-y

[:11-19] Schüller, I., & Demetriou, Y. (2018). Physical activity interventions promoting social competence at school: A systematic review. Educational Research Review, 25, 39–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2018.09.001

[:12-20] Rothstein, M. A., & Shoben, A. B. (2013). Does Consent Bias Research? The American Journal of Bioethics, 13(4), 27–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2013.767955

[21] Eather, N., Wade, L., Pankowiak, A., & Eime, R. (2023). The Impact of Sports Participation on Mental Health and Social Outcomes in adults: a Systematic Review and the “Mental Health through Sport” Conceptual Model. Systematic Reviews, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-023-02264-8

[22] Eime, R. M., Young, J. A., Harvey, J. T., Charity, M. J., & Payne, W. R. (2013). A Systematic Review of the Psychological and Social Benefits of Participation in Sport for Children and adolescents: Informing Development of a Conceptual Model of Health through Sport. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 10(1), 98. https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-10-98

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