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Multiple types of documents, ranging from books to academic journals, have been included in this compilation of research on the Cheyenne language. Many sources address the structure of the language. The origins of pitch and inflections in the Cheyenne language are highlighted, along with the linguistic rules of the pitch. Furthermore, grammar and phonology are addressed, so ultimately this closer look at the language structure helps distinguish the Cheyenne language among other endangered/similar languages. Also, the importance of the language’s survival is highlighted, noting the achievements that have been made in cooperation with the Chief Dull Knife College and local community.

Classification

In existing article

History

PA *θk has the Sutaio reflex 'in e-nete'e 'she tells lies', but the Cheyenne-Proper reflex 'k in hetone'ke 'tree-bark'. It therefore seems certain that speakers of both Cheyenne dialects-perhaps mixed bands-were involved in the Arapaho contact that led to this unusual reflex of PA *k.

Geographic Distribution

In existing article

Sounds/Phonology

The systematic phonemes of Cheyenne, presented in the accompanying chart, are distinguished by seven two-valued features with the following definitions

Oral: primary articulation is oral (vs. at the glottis)

Vocoid (voc): central resonant (oral) continuant

Syllabic (syl): nuclear to syllable (vs. marginal)

Closure (clos): stoppage of air flow at point of primary articulation ['non-continuant']

Nasal (nas): velic is open

Grave (grv): primary articulation at oral extremity (lips or velum) ['non-coronal' for consonants, 'back' for vowels]

Diffuse (dif): primary articulation is relatively front ['anterior']

Within the chart, O indicates the value is indeterminable or irrelevant. A blank indicates the value is specifiable only in context (although any value could be inserted because the post-cyclical rules would change the value to the correct one). Parentheses enclose values that are redundant according to the rules in the next section; these values are entered in the chart merely to demonstrate the results of those rules.

Cheyenne has distinctive surface pitch patterns; compare the following pairs, in which relatively high pitched syllables have acute accent; these are the syllables with 'pitch accent':

maxháayanáto (if I am hungry)

maxháayanato (if you are hungry)

hótame (dog)

hotáme (dogs)

While some pitch patterns can be accounted for by ordered phonological rules, as suggested by the frequent shift of accent when suffixes are added (e.g. compare matekóme raccoon and mátekomeo?o raccoons), there apparently are certain vowels which must be assigned inherent accent in order for the rules to work; note the permanence of the accent position in the word badger: ma?háhko?e (sg.), ma?háhko?eo?o (pl.)

The nonnasal reflexes of *k generally develop as follows in Cheyenne. First, *n and *h drop and all other consonants give glottal catch before *k. *k then drops except in element-final position. Next, there is an increment before any remaining *k not preceded by a glottal catch: a secondary h (replaced by š after e) ) in words originating in the Cheyenne Proper dialect, and a vowel in those originating in the Sutaio (So'taa'e) dialect. In the latter dialect the *k gives glottal catch in a word-final syllable (after the loss of some final syllables) and drops elsewhere, leaving the vowel increment. Sutaio 'k clusters are all reduced to glottal catch.

There is a small amount of evidence that Cheyenne may have a stress system independent from that of pitch. If there is a separate stress system, its role is very minor in Cheyenne prosody. Unlike pitch, it would carry no lexical or grammatical function.

Grammar

A Cheyenne verb is something like a "sentence", all wrapped up in a single word. Many Cheyenne verbs can stand all by themselves. And they can be translated by complete English sentences. For instance, éhoo'koho means "It's raining." Énéméne means "He's singing." We can add nouns to a Cheyenne verb, to give even more information. For example, we can say "Hetane énéméne," which means "The man is singing."

Vocabulary/Lexis

In existing article

Writing System

In existing article

Revitalization Efforts and Education

In 1997, the Cultural Affairs Department of Chief Dull Knife College applied to the Administration for Native Americans for an approximately $50,000 language preservation planning grant. The department wanted to use this money to asses the degree to which Cheyenne was being spoken on the Northern Cheyenne Reservation, to use this data to establish community long-term language goals, and to prepare Chief Dull Knife College to implement a Cheyenne Language Center and curriculum guide. In 2015, the Chief Dull Knife College sponsored the 18th Annual Language Immersion Camp. This event was organized into two weeklong sessions, and it's aim was to educate the younger generation on their ancestral language. The first session focused on educating 5-10 year olds, while the second session focused on 11-18 year olds. Certified Cheyenne language instructors taught daily classes. Ultimately, the camp provided approximately ten temporary jobs for fluent speakers on the impoverished reservation. The State of Montana has passed a law that guarantees support for tribal language preservation for Montana tribes. Classes in the Cheyenne language are available at Chief Dull Knife College in Lame Deer, Montana, Southwestern Oklahoma State University, and at Watonga High School in Watonga, Oklahoma.

Bibliography

1) Caufield, C. (2015). Keeping the Cheyenne language alive. News From Indian Country, 29(8), 19.

2) FRANTZ, D. G. (1972). Cheyenne distinctive features and phonological rules. International Journal Of American Linguistics, 386-13.

3) FRANTZ, D. G. (1972). Origin of Cheyenne pitch accent. International Journal Of American Linguistics, 38223-225.

4) Goddard, I. (2000). The Historical Origins of Cheyenne Inflections. In J. i. Nichols (Ed.) , Papers of the Thirty-First Algonquian Conference (pp. 77-129). Winnipeg, MB: University of Manitoba.

5) Leman, W. (1980). A Reference Grammar of the Cheyenne Language. Greeley: Univ. of Northern Colorado, Museum of Anthropol.5)

6) Leman, W. (1981). Cheyenne Pitch Rules. International Journal of American Linguistics, 47(4), 283-309. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1265058

6) LEMAN, W. (1980). Evidence for a PA *k: Cheyenne n correspondence. International Journal Of American Linguistics, 46316-318.

8) Littlebear, R. E. (2003). Chief Dull Knife Community is Strenghtening the Northern Cheyenne Language and Culture. Journal of American Indian Education, (1). 75.

9) Littlebear, R. (2000). Just Speak Your Language. Whole Earth, (100), 9.

10) Petter, R. (. (1865-1947). (1913). Cheyenne grammar (condensed) [manuscript].

11) PROULX, P. (1982). Proto-Algonquian *k in Cheyenne. International Journal Of American Linguistics, 48467-471.

12) SAY IT IN CHEYENNE. (2005). Scholastic Scope, 53(14), 11.