User:Netscott/Muhammad

''For other persons named Muhammad, see [[Muhammad (name)]]. For other uses, see [[Muhammad (disambiguation)]].''     '''Muhammad''' ( ''''; also ''Mohammed'', ''Muhammed'', ''Mohamet'', and other variants)<ref> for the Arabic pronunciation.</ref><ref> Welch, noting the frequency of Muhammad being called as "Al-Amin"(Arabic: الامين ), a common Arab name, suggests the possibility of "Al-Amin" being Muhammad's given name as it is a masculine form from the same root as his mother's name, A'mina. cf. "Muhammad", ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online''; The sources frequently say that he, in his youth, was called with the nickname "Al-Amin" meaning "Honest, Truthful" cf. Ernst (2004), p.85.</ref> was the historical founder of the religion of [[Islam]], considered by [[Muslim]]s to be the last messenger and [[prophet]] of God (Arabic: ألله ''[[Allah]]''<ref>''The Cambridge History of Islam'' (1977) writes that "It is appropriate to use the word 'God' rather than the transliteration 'Allah'. For one thing it cannot be denied that Islam is an offshoot of the Judaeo-Christians tradition, and for another the Christian Arabs of today have no other word for 'God' than 'Allah'." cf p.32.</ref>). Sources on Muhammad’s life concur that he was born ''ca.'' [[570]] [[anno domini|AD]] in the city of [[Mecca]] in [[Arabia]]<ref name="EncWorldHistory">''Encyclopedia of World History'' (1998), p.452</ref>, was orphaned at a young age, was brought up by his uncle, worked mostly as a merchant, and was married by age 26. At some point, discontented with life in Mecca, he would retreat to a cave in the surrounding mountains for meditation and reflection. According to Islamic tradition, it was here at age 40, in the month of [[Ramadan]], where he received his first revelation from God. Three years after this event, Muhammad started preaching these revelations publicly, proclaiming that "[[Oneness of God|God is One]]", that complete "surrender" to Him (lit. ''islām''<ref>The word "''islām''" derives from the [[Triliteral|triconsonantal]] [[Arabic]] root [[S-L-M|sīn-lām-mīm]], which carries the basic meaning of safety and peace. The [[masdar|verbal noun]] "''islām''" is formed from the verb ''aslama'', a derivation of this root which means to accept, surrender, or submit; thus, 'Islam' effectively means submission to and acceptance of [[God]]. ''See:'' [[Islam#Etymology_and_meaning]]</ref>) is man's religion (''[[Deen (Arabic term)|dīn]]''), and that he was a prophet and messenger of God, in the same vein as [[Adam]], [[Noah]], [[Abraham]], [[Moses]], [[Jesus]], and [[Prophets of Islam|other prophets]].<ref name="EspositoI">Esposito (1998), p.12; (1999) p.25; (2002) pp.4-5</ref><ref name="EoI-Muhammad">"Muhammad", ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online''</ref><ref name="Peters">Peters (2003), p.9</ref> He gained few followers early on, and was largely met with hostility from the tribes of Mecca. To escape persecution, Muhammad and his followers migrated to [[Yathrib]] ([[Medina]]<ref>After Muhhammad's migration to Yathrib, the city came to be known as ''Madina al-Nabi'', lit. 'City of the Prophet'; hence, the name Medina</ref>) in the year 622. This historic event, the [[Hijra]], marks the beginning of the [[Islamic calendar]]. In Medina, Muhammad managed to unite the conflicting tribes, and after eight years of fighting with the Meccan tribes, his followers, who by then had grown to ten thousand, conquered Mecca. In 632 AD, on returning to Medina from his '[[The Farewell Pilgrimage|Farewell pilgrimage]]', Muhammad fell ill and died at age 63, by which time most of [[Arabia]] had converted to Islam. The revelations (or ''[[Ayat]]s'', lit. 'Signs of God'), which Muhammad had continued receiving till his death, form the verses of the [[Qur'an]]<ref>The term ''Qur'an'' was first used in the Qur'an itself. There are two different theories about this term and its formation that are discussed in [[Quran#Etymology]] cf. "Qur'an", ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online''.</ref>, regarded by Muslims as the “word of God”, around which the religion is based. Besides the Qur'an, Muhammad’s life (''[[sira]]'') and traditions (''[[hadith]]'') are also upheld by Muslims, who consider him to be the “Perfect Man”, whose example (''[[sunnah]]'') is to be followed in all aspects of life.  ==Etymology==   The [[Muhammad (name)|name Muhammad]] etymologically means "the praised one" in Arabic.<ref></ref> Within Islam, Muhammad is known as [[Nabi]] (Prophet) and [[Rasul]] (Messenger). Although the Qur'an sometimes declines to make a distinction among prophets, in verse  it singles out Muhammad as the "[[Seal of the Prophets]]" ().<ref name="Ernst">Ernst (2004), p.80</ref> The Qur'an also refers to Muhammad as "Ahmad" () (Arabic :أحمد), Arabic for "more praiseworthy". ==Overview== Born to [[‘Abdu’llah ibn ‘Abdu’l-Muttalib]], Muhammad initially adopted the occupation of a shepherd, and later became a merchant. In his youth, he was called by the nickname "Al-Amin" (Arabic: الامين ), a common Arab name meaning "faithful, trustworthy" and was sought out as an impartial arbitrator.<ref name="EoI-Muhammad"/><ref name="EncWorldHistory"/> During the month of [[Ramadan]], Muhammad would retreat to a cave located at the summit of Mount Hira, just outside Mecca in the Arabian Hijaz, where he fasted and prayed. When he was about forty (610 CE), Muhammad had a religious experience in this cave; according to Islamic belief, he was visited by the [[Gabriel#Gabriel in Islam|Archangel Gabriel]] and commanded to recite verses sent by God. These revelations continued until his death twenty-three years later. The collection of these verses is known as the [[Qur'an]]. He expanded his mission as a [[prophet of Islam|prophet]], publicly preaching [[Tawhid|strict monotheism]], condemning against the social evils of his day, and warning of a [[Qiyamah|Day of Judgment]] when all humans shall be held responsible for their deeds.<ref name="EncWorldHistory"/> After ignoring Muhammad's preaching, the elites in Mecca, feeling threatened by his message, harassed Muhammad, and persecuted his followers. This continued, and intensified, over more than a decade. The hardships reached a new level for Muhammad after the deaths of his wife Khadija and his uncle Abu Talib, who although not becoming a Muslim had protected Muhammad throughout. Eventually, in [[622]], Muhammad left Mecca in a journey known to Muslims as the [[Hijra (Islam)|Hijra]] (the Migration).<ref name="EncWorldHistory"/> He settled in the area of ''Yathrib'' (now known as [[Medina]]) with his followers, where he was the leader of the first Muslim community. Eight years of war between Muhammad and Meccan forces followed, ending with the Muslim victory and conquest of Mecca. The Muslims subsequently removed everything they considered [[idolatry|idolatrous]] from the [[Kaaba]]. Most of the townspeople accepted Islam. In March 632, Muhammad led the pilgrimage known as the [[Hajj]]. On returning to Medina he fell ill and died after a few days, on June 8. Under the [[caliphs]] who assumed authority after his death, the Islamic empire expanded into [[Palestine]], [[Syria]], [[Mesopotamia]], [[Persian Empire|Persia]], [[Egypt]], [[Maghreb|North Africa]], southern [[Spain]], and [[Anatolia]]. Later conquests, commercial contact between Muslims and non-Muslims, and missionary activity spread Islam over much of the [[Eastern Hemisphere]], including [[Islam in China|China]] and [[Southeast Asia]]. ==Sources for Muhammad's life==   The earliest known biography of Muhammad is [[Ibn Ishaq]]'s [[Sirah Rasul Allah]] ("Life of God's messenger",) by a member of the [[Tabi‘in]] generation who was born 85 years after [[Hijra (Islam)|Hijra]] — approximately [[717]] — and who died in [[767]]. Although the original work is lost, portions of it survive in the recensions of [[Ibn Hisham]] (Sirah al-Nabawiyyah, or "Life of the prophet") and [[Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari|Al-Tabari]].<ref> Donner (1998), p.132</ref> Other sources for biographies of Muhammad include various collections of [[hadith]], the military chronicles of [[Al-Waqidi|Waqidi]] and the biographies of Waqidi's student [[Ibn Sa'd]] (783-845). These texts were recorded more than a century, and often several centuries, after the death of Muhammad. The Qur'an is generally considered by academic scholars to record the words spoken by Muhammad.<ref>F. E. Peters, ''The Quest for Historical Muhammad'', International Journal of Middle East Studies (1991) p.291-315</ref> The Qur'an (a word that literally translates as "Recitation") was also maintained by the [[Hafiz (Quran)|huffaz]], people who memorized the entire document and recited it. [[Image:Qur'an folio 11th century kufic.jpg|thumb|left|11th century Persian Qur'an folio page in [[kufic]] script]] From a scholarly point of view, the most credible source providing information on events in Muhammad's life is the Qur'an, even though its chronological interpretation is complex, and even though it contains very little in the way of coherent biography. Next in importance are the traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to him (the [[sira]] and [[hadith]] literature), which provide further information on Muhammad's life.<ref>Reeves (2003), p.6-7</ref> All, or most, of the Qur'an was apparently written down by Muhammad's secretaries while he was alive, but it was, then as now, primarily an orally related document, and the written compilation of the whole Qur'an in its definite form as we have it now was completed early after the death of Muhammad.<ref>''The Cambridge History of Islam'' (1977), p.32</ref> The earliest surviving written [[sira]] (Biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to him) dates to 150 years after Muhammad, the compilation and (critical) analysis of which took place even later.<ref>Lewis (2002), p. 33-34</ref> ==Life based on Islamic traditions== ===Before Medina===  ====Genealogy====  Muhammad traced his [[genealogy]] as follows: Muhammad was born into the [[Quraysh]] tribe. He is the son of [[Abd-Allah ibn Abd-al-Muttalib|Abd Allah]], who is son of [[Shaiba ibn Hashim|Abd al-Muttalib]] (Shaiba) son of [[Hashim ibn Abd al-Manaf|Hashim]] (Amr) ibn Abd Manaf (al-Mughira) son of Qusai (Zaid) ibn Kilab ibn Murra son of Ka'b ibn Lu'ay son of Ghalib ibn Fahr ([[Quraish]]) son of Malik ibn an-Nadr (Qais) the son of Kinana son of Khuzaimah son of Mudrikah (Amir) son of Ilyas son of [[Mudar]] son of Nizar son of Ma'ad ibn [[Adnan]], whom the northern [[Arab]]s believed to be their common ancestor. Adnan in turn is said to have been a descendant of [[Ishmael]], son of [[Abraham]]. (''ibn'' means "son of" in Arabic; alternate names of people with two names are given in parentheses.)<ref> [http://www.sunnipath.com/Resources/PrintMedia/Books/B0033P0005.aspx Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum: The Lineage and Family of Muhammad] by Saifur Rahman al-Mubarakpuri </ref> He was also called ''Abu-Qaasim'' (meaning "father of Qaasim") by some, after his short-lived first son. ====Childhood==== Muhammad was born into an affluent family settled in the northern Arabian town of [[Mecca]]. Tradition places it in the [[Year of the Elephant]], commonly identified with [[570]]. Some calculate his birthday as [[20 April]] of that year, while [[Shi'a Islam|Shi'a Muslims]] believe it to have been [[26 April]] [[570]]. Other sources calculate the year of his birth to have been [[571]]. Muhammad's father, [[Abd-Allah ibn Abd-al-Muttalib|Abdullah]], had died almost six months before he was born and the young boy was brought up by his paternal grandfather [[Shaiba ibn Hashim|Abd al-Muttalib]], of the [[Banu Hashim]] [[clan]] of the [[Quraysh]] [[tribe]]. At the age of six, Muhammad lost his mother [[Aminah bint Wahab|Amina]] and became fully orphaned. "Many years later, when he was exiled by his Meccan opponents, on his first pilgrimage from Medina to Mecca, he stopped at his mother's grave and cried bitterly, bringing tears to the eyes of his companions."<ref>Reeves (2003), p.11</ref> When he was eight years of age, his grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, who had become his guardian, also died. Muhammad now came under the care of his uncle [[Abu Talib]], the new leader of the [[Hashim ibn Abd al-Manaf|Hashim]] clan of the Quraish tribe, the most powerful in Mecca. Mecca was a thriving commercial center, due in great part to a shrine (now called the [[Kaaba]]) that housed statues of many Arabian gods. Merchants from various tribes would visit Mecca during the pilgrimage season, when all inter-tribal warfare was forbidden and they could trade in safety. While still in his teens, Muhammad began accompanying his uncle on trading journeys to [[Syria]]. He thus became well-travelled and knowledgeable about foreign ways. ====Middle years====   Muhammad became a merchant. He "was involved in trade between the Indian ocean and the Mediterranean Sea."<ref name="BerkWorldHistory">''Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History'' (2005), v.3, p.1025 </ref> He gained a reputation for reliability and honesty that attracted a proposal from [[Khadijah bint Khuwaylid|Khadija]]h, a forty-year-old widow in [[595]].<ref name="BerkWorldHistory"/> Muhammad consented to the marriage, which by all accounts was a happy one. [[Ibn Ishaq]] records that Khadijah bore Muhammad six children: three sons named Al Qasem, Abdullah (who is also called Al Tayeb and Al Taher) and Ibrahim, and four daughters. He was also called Abul Qasim (father of Qasim) after his eldest son Qasim, according to Arab customs. All of Khadija's children were born before Muhammad reported receiving his first [[revelation]]. His son [[Qasim ibn Muhammad|''Qasim'']] died at the age of two. The four daughters are said to be [[Zainab bint Muhammad|''Zainab'']], [[Ruqayyah bint Muhammad|''Ruqayyah'']], [[Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad|''Umm Kulthum'']], and [[Fatima Zahra|''Fatima'']]. The [[Shi'a Islam|Shi'a]] say that Muhammad had only the one daughter, Fatima, and that the other daughters were either children of Khadijah by her previous marriage, or children of her sister. ====The Beginnings of the Qur'an==== [[Image:Cave_Hira.jpg|thumb|left|150px|The mountain of Hira where, according to Muslim tradition, Muhammad received his first revelation.]] Muhammad often retreated to [[Mount Hira]] near Mecca. Islamic tradition holds that the angel [[Gabriel]] began communicating with him here in the year [[610]] and commanded Muhammad to recite the following verses:<ref>Brown (2003), pp.72-73</ref> :<blockquote>''Proclaim! (or read!) in the name of thy Lord and Cherisher, Who created- Created man, out of a (mere) clot of congealed blood: Proclaim! And thy Lord is Most Bountiful,- He Who taught (the use of) the pen,- Taught man that which he knew not.''<ref>-</ref></blockquote> He thought that he felt evil in the speaker, and his first thought was that it was satan. There was as of yet no message given - nothing by which to know the peculiarities of the religion to be propagated. Upon receiving these words alone, he was scared, and returned home, relating the event to his wife [[Khadijah bint Khuwaylid|Khadijah]]. He was consoled and reassured by Khadijah and her Christian cousin, [[Waraqah ibn Nawfal]]. This was all the two heard him relate, thus, though Waraqah immediately tried to console the fearful man with words calculated to make him leave off suicidal contemplations, turning his thoughts to Prophets like Moses, and suggesting that it was Gabriel - but Khadijah proceeded more cautiously, and was only satisfied that the revelations had indeed come from a good source after the conclusion of a test she had devised to determine that very thing. (Waraqah died before ever hearing anything more of the words propagated as given by Gabriel - and the one who was told to recite attached the proposed name of Gabriel to all his recitations.) This was followed by a pause of three years during which Muhammad had gave himself up further to prayers and spiritual practices. When the revelations resumed he was reassured and commanded to begin preaching.<ref>Brown (2003), pp.73-74</ref><ref>-</ref> According to Welch, the revelations were accompanied by mysterious seizures.<ref name="EoI-Muhammad"/> Muhammad was confident that he could distinguish his own thoughts from these messages.<ref name="Cambridge31"/> ====Rejection==== According to Muslim tradition, Khadijah and Waraqah, were the first to believe that Muhammad was a prophet. They were soon followed by Muhammad's ten-year-old cousin [[Ali|Ali ibn Abi Talib]], close friend [[Abu Bakr]] and adopted son [[Zayd ibn Harithah|Zaid]] (later known as Zaid bin Haarith.) Around [[613]], Muhammad began to preach amongst Meccans most of whom ignored it and a few mocked him, while some others became his followers. There were three main groups of early converts to Islam: younger brothers and sons of great merchants; people who had fallen out of the first rank in their tribe or failed to attain it; and the weak, mostly unprotected foreigners.<ref>''The Cambridge History of Islam'' (1977), p.36</ref> As the ranks of Muhammad's followers swelled, he became a threat to the local tribes and the rulers of the city, whose wealth rested upon the Kaaba, the focal point of Meccan religious life, which Muhammad threatened to overthrow. Muhammad’s denunciation of the Meccan traditional religion was especially offensive to his own tribe, the [[Quraish|Quraysh]], as they were the guardians of the Ka'aba. The great merchants tried to come to some arrangements with Muhammad in exchange for abandoning his preaching. They offered him admission into the inner circle of merchants and establishing his position in the circle by an advantageous marriage. <ref>''The Cambridge History of Islam'' (1977), p.36</ref> Some of Muhammad's followers fled to the [[Ethiopian]] [[Kingdom of Aksum]] and founded a small colony there under the protection of the Christian Ethiopian [[Al-Negashi|king]]. (See [[Islam in Ethiopia]]). Several ''[[suras]]'' and parts of ''suras'' are said to date from this time, and reflect its circumstances: see for example ''[[al-Masadd]]'', ''[[al-Humaza]]'', parts of ''[[Maryam (sura)|Maryam]]'' and ''[[al-Anbiya]]'', ''[[al-Kafirun]]'', and ''[[Abasa]]''. In 619, the "year of sorrow", both Muhammad's wife Khadijah and his uncle Abu Talib died. The relationship between Muhammad's group of followers and Muhammad's own Quraysh clan, which were already bad, worsened still further.<ref>Hourani (2003), p.17</ref> The controversial [[Satanic verses]] incident, if it happened, happened at this time. <ref> Some early Islamic [[Satanic Verses#Complete Account .28Tabar.C4.AB.29|histories recount]] that as Muhammad was reciting Sūra Al-Najm (Q.53), as revealed to him by the angel Gabriel, Satan tempted him to utter the following lines after verses 19 and 20 :"Have you thought of Allāt and al-'Uzzā and Manāt the third, the other; These are the exalted Gharaniq, whose intercession is hoped for. (Allāt, al-'Uzzā and Manāt were three goddesses worshiped by the Meccans). These histories then say that these 'Satanic Verses' were shortly afterward repudiated by Muhammad at the behest of the angel [[Gabriel]]. cf Ibn Ishaq, A. Guillaume p.166. Academic scholars such as [[William Montgomery Watt]] and [[Guillaume]] argued for its authenticity while scholars such as [[Caetani]] and [[Burton]] rejected the tradition. </ref> ====Isra and Miraj====    Some time in [[620]], Muhammad told his followers that he had experienced the ''[[Isra and Miraj]]'', a miraculous journey said to have been accomplished in one night along with [[Gabriel|Angel Gabriel]]. In the first part of the journey, the ''Isra'', he is said to have travelled from [[Mecca]] to "the farthest mosque" (in Arabic: ''masjid al-aqsa''), which Muslims usually identify with the [[Temple Mount]] in [[Jerusalem]]. In the second part, the ''Miraj'', Muhammad is said to have toured [[heaven]] and [[hell]], and spoken with earlier prophets, such as [[Abraham]], [[Moses]], and [[Jesus]]. [[Ibn Ishaq]], author of first [[Sirah Rasul Allah|biography]] of Muhammad, presents this event as a spiritual experience while later historians like [[Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari|Al-Tabari]] and [[Ibn Kathir]] present it as a physical journey.<ref>''Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World'' (2003), p.482</ref> Those Muslims subscribing to the latter view consider the place under the [[Dome of the Rock]] the site from which Muhammad ascended to heaven.  {| align="right" width="30%" style="border:1px solid #ddd; margin:0 0 1em 1em; padding:0 0 1em 1em; vertical-align:right;" !colspan="2" align="center"|<big>Timeline of Muhammad</big> |- |colspan="2" align="center"|<small>Important dates and locations in the life of Muhammad |- |align="right">|''c''. [[569]] |Death of his father, `Abd Allah |- |align="right">|''c''. [[570]] |Possible date of birth, [[April 20]]: [[Mecca]] |- |align="right">|[[570]] |Legendary unsuccessful [[Abraha|Ethiopian]] attack on Mecca |- |align="right">|[[576]] |Death of Mother |- |align="right">|[[578]] |Death of Grandfather |- |align="right">|''c''. [[583]] |Takes trading journeys to [[Syria]] |- |align="right">|''c''. [[595]] |Meets and marries [[Khadijah]] |- |align="right">|[[610]] |First reports of [[Al-Alaq|Qur'anic revelation]] |- |align="right">|''c''. [[610]] |Appears as [[Prophet of Islam]] |- |align="right">|''c''. [[613]] |Begins spreading message of Islam publicly |- |align="right">|''c''. [[614]] |Begins to gather following in Mecca |- |align="right">|''c''. [[615]] |Emigration of Muslims to [[Kingdom of Aksum|Ethiopia]] |- |align="right">|[[616]] |[[Banu Hashim]] clan boycott begins |- |align="right">|''c''. [[618]] |[[Medina|Medinan]] Civil War |- |align="right">|[[619]] |Banu Hashim clan boycott ends |- |align="right">|[[619]] |The year of sorrows: [[Khadijah]] and [[Abu Talib]] die |- |align="right">|''c''. [[620]] |[[Isra and Miraj]] |- |align="right">|[[622]] |Emigrates to Medina ([[Hijra (Islam)|Hijra]]) |- |align="right">|[[624]] |[[Battle of Badr]]: Muslims defeat Meccans |- |align="right">|[[624]] |Expulsion of [[Banu Qaynuqa]] |- |align="right">|[[625]] |[[Battle of Uhud]]: Meccans defeat Muslims |- |align="right">|[[625]] |Expulsion of [[Banu Nadir]] |- |align="right">|[[626]] |Attack on [[Dumat al-Jandal]] (Syria) |- |align="right">|[[627]] |[[Battle of the Trench]] |- |align="right">|[[627]] ||Destruction of [[Banu Qurayza]] |- |align="right">|[[627]] |Subjugation of Dumat al-Jandal |- |align="right">|[[628]] |[[Treaty of Hudaybiyya]] |- |align="right">|''c''. [[628]] |Gains access to Meccan shrine [[Kaaba]] |- |align="right">|[[628]] |Conquest of the [[Battle of Khaybar|Khaybar]] oasis |- |align="right">|[[629]] |First [[hajj]] pilgrimage |- |align="right">|[[629]] |Attack on [[Byzantine empire]] fails: [[Battle of Mu'tah]] |- |align="right">|[[630]] |Attacks and bloodlessly captures Mecca |- |align="right">|''c''. [[630]] |[[Battle of Hunayn]] |- |align="right">|''c''. [[630]] |[[Siege of Taif]] |- |align="right">|[[630]] |[[Conquest of Mecca]] |- |align="right">|''c''. [[631]] |Rules most of the Arabian peninsula |- |align="right">|''c''. [[632]] |Attacks the [[Ghassanids]]: [[Tabuk]] |- |align="right">|[[632]] |Farewell [[hajj]] pilgrimage |- |align="right">|[[632]] |Death ([[June 8]]): Medina |}  ====Hijra to Ethiopia====  In [[615]] AD/CE, a band of Muslims were counseled by the Prophet Muhammad to escape persecution in Mecca and travel to [[Ethiopia]], which was ruled by a Christian king. (see [[Islam in Ethiopia]]) In that year, his followers were fleeing from Mecca's leading tribe, the Quraish, who sent emissaries to bring them back to Arabia, but the King of Ethiopia protected Muhammad's followers. Since then, Muhammad himself instructed his followers who came to Ethiopia, to respect and protect Ethiopia as well as live in peace with Ethiopian Christians. Accordingly, some scholars state that Ethiopia was the country that saved Islam from its near destruction and termination. ===Muhammad in Medina=== ====Hijra to Medina====   By 622, Muhammad then emigrated to [[Medina]], then known as Yathrib, a large agricultural [[oasis]] where there were a number of Muslim converts. By breaking the link with his own tribe, Muhammad demonstrated that tribal and family loyalties were insignificant compared to the bonds of [[Islam]], a revolutionary idea in the tribal society of Arabia. This ''[[Hijra (Islam)|Hijra]]'' or emigration (traditionally translated into English as "flight") marks the beginning of the [[Islamic calendar]]. The Muslim calendar counts dates from the Hijra, which is why Muslim dates have the suffix AH (After Hijra). Muhammad came to Medina as a mediator, invited to resolve the feud between the Arab factions of [[Aws]] and [[Khazraj]]. He ultimately did so by absorbing both factions into his Muslim community, forbidding bloodshed among Muslims. However, Medina was also home to a number of Jewish tribes, divided into three major clans: Banu Qainuqa, Banu Qurayza and Banu Nadir, and some minor groups.<ref name="Cambridge39">''The Cambridge History of Islam'' (1977), p. 39</ref> There was fighting in Yathrib for around a hundred years before 620. The Jewish tribes allied with other clans and were sometimes on opposing sides.<ref name="Cambridge39"/> The recurring slaughters and disagreements over the resulting claims, especially after the great battle of Bu'ath in which all the clans were involved, made it obvious to them that the tribal conceptions of blood-feud and [[an eye for an eye]] were no longer workable unless "there was one man with authority to adjudicate in disputed cases."<ref name="Cambridge39"/> A delegation from Medina, consisting of the representatives of the twelve important clans of Medina, invited Muhammad as a neutral outsider to Medina to serve as the chief arbitrator for the entire community.<ref name="Cambridge39"/><ref name="Esp"/> Among the things Muhammad did in order to settle down the longstanding grievances among the tribes of Medina was drafting a document known as the [[Constitution of Medina]] (date debated), "establishing a kind of alliance or federation" among the eight Medinan tribes and Muslim emigrants from Mecca, which specified the rights and duties of all citizens and the relationship of the different communities in Medina (including that of the Muslim community to other communities specifically the [[Jew]]s and other "[[People of the Book|Peoples of the Book]]").<ref name="Cambridge39"/><ref name="Esp"/> ====Beginnings of conflict==== Relations between [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]] rapidly worsened (see ''surat'' ''[[al-Baqara]]''). Meccans confiscated all the property that the Muslims had left in Mecca. In Medina, Muhammad signed treaties of alliance and mutual help with neighboring tribes. Mecca declared its hostility and status of war with the Muslims. In March of 624, Muhammad led some three hundred warriors in a [[raid (military)|raid]] on a Meccan merchant caravan. The Meccans successfully defended the caravan, but then decided to teach the Muslims a lesson and marched against Medina. It should be noted that [[Islamic scholar]]s question narratives regarding looting the caravan on the basis of the Qur'anic version of the account.<ref>They argue that these narratives contradict the [[Qur'an]]ic version of the account, asserting that the caravan was one of the two targets which "weak believers" wanted to attack (), but that the Muslims actually fought against Meccan army, as looting a defenceless caravan wouldn't require preparations which the Qur'an talks about (). ''See, e.g.,'' Tariq Hashmi. ''[http://www.al-mawrid.org/Content/ViewReaderQuestion.aspx?questionId=400 Cause of Battle of Badr]'', [[Al-Mawrid]]; [[Amin Ahsan Islahi]]. ''[[Tadabbur-i-Qur'an]]'', Ist Ed., (Lahore: Faraan Foundation 2003), pp. 427-40; [[Shibli Nomani]]. ''Siratu al-Nabi,'' Ist Ed. vol. 2, (Lahore: Qazi Publishers 1981) pp. 49-52; [[Khalid Masud]], ''Hayaat-e Rasul-e Ummi,'' 1st ed. (Lahore: Dar al-Tazkeer 2003), pp.319-25</ref> On [[March 15]], [[624]] near a place called [[Battle of Badr|Badr]], the Meccans and the Muslims clashed. Though outnumbered more than three times (one thousand to three hundred - majority of Muslim historians put the exact total at 313) in the battle, the Muslims met with success, killing at least forty-five Meccans and taking seventy prisoners for ransom; only fourteen Muslims died.<ref>Glubb (2002), pp.179-186.</ref> This marked the real beginning of Muslim military battles. To his followers, the [[Battle of Badr|victory in Badr]] appeared to be divine authentication of Muhammad's prophethood. Muhammad and his followers were now a dominant force in the oasis of Yathrib (Medina). After Khadija's death, Muhammad married [[Aisha]], the daughter of his friend [[Abu Bakr]] (who would later emerge as the first leader of the Muslims after Muhammad's death). In Medina, he married [[Hafsah]], daughter of [[Umar ibn al-Khattab|Umar]] (who would eventually become Abu Bakr's successor). Muhammad's daughter [[Fatima Zahra|Fatima]] married [[Ali]], Muhammad's cousin. According to the Sunni, another daughter, Umm Kulthum, married [[Uthman ibn Affan|Uthman]]. Each of these men, in later years, would emerge as successors to Muhammad and political leaders of the Muslims. Thus, all four [[caliphs]] were linked to Muhammad by marriage. Sunni Muslims regard these caliphs as the ''[[Rashidun]]'', or ''Rightly Guided''. (See [[Succession to Muhammad]] for more information on the controversy on the succession to the caliphate). ====The conflict with Mecca==== In [[625]] the [[Mecca]]n leader [[Abu Sufyan]] marched on [[Medina]] with three thousand men. Urged on by younger Muslims fired up by the victory at Badr and against the advice of [[Abdallah ibn Ubayy]] to last out the attack inside the town, Muhammad led his force outside and fought the [[Battle of Uhud]] on [[March 23]], that ended in a Muslim defeat (According to Watt however it was not a Muslim defeat from a military standpoint. The Meccans, thinking themselves of having Arabia under their control, had aimed to destroy Muslims completely. But they completely failed to achieve this aim. They killed 75 Muslims for the loss of 77 of their own in Badr. <ref> Watt (1974) p.140 </ref>) However, the Meccan did not occupy the town and withdrew to Mecca because he could not attack on Muhammad's position again for military loss, low morale and possibility of Muslim resistance in the town. There was also hope that Abd-Allah ibn Ubayy leading a group of Muslims in Medina could be win over by diplomacy. <ref> Watt (1974) p.141</ref> In April [[627]], Abu Sufyan led another strong force against Medina, but couldn't overcome the defenders in the [[Battle of the Trench]]. Following the Muslims' victory at the Battle of the Trench, the Muslims were able, through conversion and conquest, to extend their rule to many of the neighboring cities and tribes. ==== Muhammad and the Jewish tribes of Medina ====  After his migration to Medina, Muhammad's attitude towards Christians and Jews became more negative.<ref name="Peters194"> F.E.Peters(2003), p.194 </ref><ref> Encyclopedia of Islam, ''Yahud''</ref> Many Medinans converted to the faith of the Meccan immigrants, but the Jewish tribes did not. Much to Muhammad's disappointment, they rejected his claim to be a prophet.<ref name="Esp"/> Their opposition "may well have been for political as well as religious reasons".<ref>Endress (2003), p.29</ref>On religious grounds, the Jews were skeptical of the possibility of a non-Jewish prophet,<ref name="Cambridge4344">''The Cambridge History of Islam'' (1977), pp.43-44</ref> and also had concerns about possible incompatibilities between the Qur'an and their own scriptures.<ref name="Cambridge4344"/><ref name="Cohen">Cohen (1995), p.23</ref> The Qur'an's response regarding the possibility of a non-Jew being a prophet was that Abraham was not a Jew. The Qur'an also claimed that it was "restoring the pure monotheism of Abraham which had been corrupted in various, clearly specified, ways by Jews and Christians".<ref name="Cambridge4344"/> The Jews also began secretly to connive with Muhammad's enemies in Mecca to overthrow him, Peters states. <ref name="Peters194"/> After each major battle with the Medinans, Muhammad attacked one of the Jewish tribes (see ). After Badr and Uhud, the Banu Qainuqa and Banu Nadir, respectively, were expelled "with their families and possessions" from Medina. After the [[Battle of the Trench]] in 627, the Muslims accused the Jews of [[Banu Qurayza]] of conspiring with the Meccans, then wiped them out.<ref>Esposito (1998), pp.10-11</ref> Two types of explanations are given for Muhammad's treatment of the Jews of Medina: Theological and Political. The theological explanation given by some Arab historians and biographers is that:"the punishment of the Medina Jews, who were invited to convert and refused, perfectly exemplify the Quran's tales of what happened to those who rejected the prophets of old." Others offered a political explanation. <ref name="Peters77">F.E.Peters(2003), p.77 </ref> F.E. Peters, a western scholar of Islam, states that Muhammad's treatment of Jews of Medina was essentially political being prompted by what Muhammad read as treasonous and not some transgression of the law of God.<ref name="Peters194"/> Peters adds that Muhammad was possibly emboldened by his military successes and also wanted to push his advantage. Economical motivations according to Peters also existed since the poorness of the Meccan migrants was a source of concern for Muhammad.<ref name="Peters78">F.E.Peters(2003), p.76-78 </ref> Peters argues that Muhammad's treatment of the Jews of Medina was "quite extraordinary", "matched by nothing in the Qur'an", and is "quite at odds with Muhammad's treatment of the Jews he encountered outside Medina." <ref name="Peters194"/> ====The truce of Hudaybiyya====  Although Muhammad had already delivered verses (-) about the performing of [[Hajj]], Muhammad and Muslims did not perform it due to the enmity of the Quraish. It was the month of [[Shawwal]] 6 A.H. when Muhammad saw in a vision that he was shaving his head after the [[Hajj]].<ref>Khan (1998), p.242</ref><ref>Lings (1987), p.249</ref> Muhammad therefore decided to perform the [[Hajj]] in the following month. Hence around the 13th of March, 628 with 1400 Companions he went towards Mecca without the least intention of giving battle.<ref name=Khan_243>Khan (1998), p.243</ref> But the [[Quraish]] were determined to offer resistance to Muslims and they posted themselves outside Mecca, closing all access to the city.<ref name=Khan_243/> In order to settle the dispute peacefully, Muhammad halted at a place called [[Treaty of Hudaybiyya|Hudaybiyya]]. Hence after series of talks a treaty was signed. The main points of treaty were the following: # The two parties and their allies should desist from hostilities against each other<ref name=treaty_terms>Lings (1987), p.253</ref><ref>Haykal (1995), p.353</ref> # Muhammad, should not perform Hajj this year<ref name=treaty_terms/><ref name=treaty_terms_khan>Khan (1998), p.245</ref> # They may come next year to perform Hajj (unarmed) but shall not stay in Mecca for more than three days<ref name=treaty_terms/><ref name=treaty_terms_khan/> # Any Muslim living in Mecca cannot settle in Medina, but Medinan Muslims may come and join Meccans (and will not be returned).<ref>Khan (1998), p.246</ref> Many Muslims were not satisfied with the terms of the treaty. However, the Qur'anic sura "Al-Fath" (The Victory) - assured the Muslims that the expedition from which they were now returning must be considered a victorious one.<ref>Lings (1987), p.255</ref><ref>Khan (1998), p.247</ref> The Muslims did benefit following the treaty; the men of Mecca and Medina could now meet in peace and discuss Islam. Hence, during the following two years the community of Islam more than doubled.<ref>Lings (1987), p.259</ref><ref>Khan (1998), p.248</ref><ref>Haykal (1995), p.356</ref> ==== Muhammad's letters to the Heads of State ==== According to Muslim tradition, after the signing of the truce, Muhammad sent letters to many rulers of the world, asking them to convert to Islam.<ref name=King_Lings>Lings (1987), p. 260</ref><ref name=Kings_Khan>Khan (1998), pp.250-251</ref><ref>Haykal (1995), p. 360</ref> Hence he sent messengers (with letters) to [[Heraclius]] of the [[Byzantine Empire]] (the eastern Roman Empire), [[Chosroes]] of [[Persia]], the chief of [[Yemen]] and to some others.<ref name=King_Lings/><ref name=Kings_Khan/> ===Conquest of Mecca===  [[Image:Kabaa.jpg|thumb|The [[Kaaba]] in [[Mecca]] held a major economic and religious role for the area, it became the Muslim [[Qibla]], or direction for [[Salat]]]]  The [[Treaty of Hudaybiyya|truce of Hudaybiyya]] had been in force for two years.<ref name=khan_274>Khan (1998), p.274</ref><ref>Lings (1987), p.291</ref> The tribe of ''Khuz'aah'' had a friendly relationship with Muhammad, while on the other hand their enemies, the ''Banu Bakr,'' had an alliance with the Meccans.<ref name=khan_274/><ref name=Lings_291>Lings (1987), p.291</ref> A clan of the Bakr made a night raid against the ''Khuz'aah'', killing a few of them.<ref name=khan_274/><ref name=Lings_291/> The Meccans helped their allies (i.e., the Banu Bakr) with weapons and, according to some sources, a few Meccans also took part in the fighting.<ref name=khan_274/> After this event, Muhammad sent a message to Mecca with three conditions, asking them to accept one of them. These were the following<ref name=khan_274_275>Khan (1998), pp.274-275</ref> # The Meccans were to pay blood-money for those slain among the Khuza'ah tribe, or # They should have nothing to do with the Banu Bakr, or # They should declare the truce of Hudaybiyya null. The Meccans replied that they would accept only the third condition.<ref name=khan_274_275/> However, soon they realized their mistake and sent Abu Safyan to renew the Hudaybiyya treaty, but now his request was declined by Muhammad. Muhammad began to prepare for a campaign.<ref>Lings (1987), p.292</ref> In 630, Muhammad marched on Mecca with an enormous force, said to number more than ten thousand men. Most Meccans converted to Islam, and Muhammad subsequently destroyed all of the statues of Arabian gods in and around the [[Kaaba]], without any exception. Henceforth the pilgrimage would be a Muslim pilgrimage and the shrine was converted to a Muslim shrine. ====Unification of Arabia==== The capitulation of Mecca and the defeat of an alliance of enemy tribes at [[Hunayn]] effectively brought the greater part of the Arabian peninsula under Muhammad's authority. However, this authority was not enforced by a regular government, as Muhammad chose instead to rule through personal relationships and tribal treaties. The Muslims were clearly the dominant force in Arabia, and most of the remaining tribes and states hastened to convert to Islam. ====Death==== [[Image:Masjid Nabawi. Medina, Saudi Arabia.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Al-Masjid al-Nabawi]] is Islam's second most sacred site; the Green dome in the background stands above [[Muhammad's tomb]]]] In [[632]] Muhammad fell ill and suffered for several days with head pain and weakness. He succumbed on Monday, [[June 8]], [[632]], in the city of Medina, at the age of sixty-three. He is buried in [[Muhammad's tomb|his tomb]] (what was his house) adjacent to [[Mosque of the Prophet]] in [[Medina]]. ===Muhammad as a military leader===  For most of the sixty-three years of his life, Muhammad was a merchant, then a religious leader. He took up the sword late in his life. He was an active military leader for ten years. ===Family life===  Muhammad's life is traditionally defined into two epochs: [[Muhammad before Medina|pre-hijra (emigration) in Mecca]], a city in northern Arabia, from the year [[570]] to [[622]] , and [[Muhammad in Medina|post-hijra in Medina]], from [[622]] until his death in [[632]]. All but two of his marriages were contracted after the [[migration to Medina]]. He married 11 or 13 women depending upon the differing accounts of who his wives were. At the age of 25, Muhammad married [[Khadijah]] which lasted for 25 years.<ref name="Esp2">Esposito (1998), p.18</ref> This marriage is described as "long" and "happy," and he relied upon Khadija in many ways.<ref>Bullough (1998), p.119</ref><ref name="Reeves46">Reeves (2003), p.46</ref> After her death, friends of Muhammad advised him to marry again, but he was reluctant to do so.<ref name="Reeves46"/><ref>Bullough (1998), p.119</ref> It was suggested to Muhammad by Khawla bint Hakim, that he should marry [[Sawda bint Zama]], a Muslim widow, or [[Aisha]]. Muhammad is said to have asked her to arrange for him to marry both. Later, Muhammad married additional wives, to make for a total of eleven, of whom nine or ten survived him. Scholars such as Esposito and Watt hold that most of the marriages had political or social motives.<ref name="EoI_Aisha">"Aisha", ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online'': Watt writes: "Muhammad had a political aim in nearly all his marriages"; for example his marriage to Aisha, "must have seen in this one a means of strengthening the ties between himself and Abu Bakr, his chief follower."</ref><ref>Esposito (1998), p.16</ref> The status of several of Muhammad's wives is disputed by scholars. [[Maria al-Qibtiyya]] may have been a slave, a freed slave, or a wife. While there is some debate about the age of Aisha (Ayesha), most references, including the Bukhari Hadith, put the marriage age at 5 or 6 and consummation of the marriage at the age of 9.<ref>[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muslim/008.smt.html#008.3310 Sahih Muslim, Book 8, Number 3310]</ref><ref>[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/bukhari/062.sbt.html#007.062.064 Sahih Bukhari Volume 7, Book 62, Number 64]</ref><ref>[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/bukhari/062.sbt.html#007.062.088 Sahih Bukhari Volume 7, Book 62, Number 88]</ref> Muhammad had children by only two wives. Khadijah is said to have borne him four daughters and a son; only one daughter, [[Fatima Zahra|Fatima]] and her children survived her father, see [[Imamah|Shia]]. Some say that his daughter [[Zainab bint Muhammad|Zainab]], mother to a daughter called Amma or Umama, survived him as well. Shi'a Muslims dispute the number of Muhammad's children, stating that he had only one daughter, and that the other "daughters" were step-daughters. Maria al-Qibtiyya bore him a son, but the child died when he was ten months old. Descendants of Muhammad are known as [[sharif]]s شريف (plural: ِأشراف Ashraaf) or [[sayyid]]. Many rulers and notables in Muslim countries, past and present have professed such descent, with various degrees of credibility, such as the [[Fatimid]] dynasty of [[North Africa]], the [[Idrisid]]s, the current royal families of [[Jordan]]. In various Muslim countries, there are societies of varying credibility that authenticate claims of descent. There is some dispute between [[Shia]] scholars regarding the [[Genealogy of Khadijah's Daughters|genealogy of the four daughters of Khadija]] on whether they were born to Khadijah from her marriage to Muhammad, an earlier marriage, or if they were in fact the daughters of a widowed and dead sister of Khadija. [[Sunni]]'s believe he had four daughters with Khadîjah. Shi'a accept Fatimah to be Muhammad's only surviving child, while some Sunni question that. There is also a difference of opinion regarding whether he had two or four sons. The conflict arises from some reports on the sons of Khadijah mentioning two sons called Tahir and Tayyab, and another mentioning one called Abdullah who was also called Tahir and possibly also called Tayyab. Ibrâhîm was the only child borne to him by Maria during his residence in Medina and the last to be born. Abdullâh was born after he declared himself a prophet but died during his residence in Mecca. All his other sons died before his claims of prophecy. In the Islamic prayer, Muslims end with the second tashahhud asking God to bless Muhammad and his descendants just as [[Abraham]] and his descendants were blessed. Children of Khadijah: Sons: *[[Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad]] *[[Qasim ibn Muhammad]] Daughters: *[[Ruqayyah bint Muhammad]] *[[Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad]] *[[Zainab bint Muhammad]] *[[Fatima Zahra]] Children of Maria: *[[Ibrahim ibn Muhammad]] ===Companions===  The term Sahaba (''companion'') refers to anyone who meets three criteria: to be a contemporary of Muhammad, to have heard Muhammad speak on at least one occasion, and to be a convert to Islam. Companions are considered the ultimate sources for the oral traditions, or ''[[hadith]]'', on which much of Muslim law and practice are based. The following are a few examples in alphabetic order:   * [[Abdullah ibn Abbas]] * [[Abu Bakr]] * [[Abu Dharr]] * [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]] * [[Ammar]]  * [[Bilal ibn Ribah|Bilal]] * [[Hamza ibn Abd al-Muttalib|Hamza]] * [[Al-Miqdad]] * [[Sad ibn Abi Waqqas|Sa'd]] * [[Zayd ibn Harithah|Zayd]]  * [[Salman the Persian]] * [[Talha]] * [[Umar ibn al-Khattab|Umar]] * [[Uthman ibn Affan|Uthman]] * [[Zubayr ibn al-Awwam|Zubair]]  == Muhammad the reformer ==   [[Bernard Lewis]] says that there are two important political traditions in Islam - one that views Muhammad as a statesman in Medina, and another that views him as a rebel in Mecca. He sees Islam itself as a type of revolution that greatly changed the societies into which the new religion was brought.<ref name="LewisNYRB"></ref> Historians generally agree that Islamic social reforms in areas such as social security, family structure, slavery and the rights of women improved on what was present in existing Arab society.<ref name="LewisNYRB"/><ref>Watt (1974), p.234</ref><ref>Robinson (2004) p.21</ref><ref>Esposito (1998), p. 98</ref><ref>"Ak̲h̲lāḳ", ''Encyclopaedia of Islam Online''</ref> For example, according to Lewis, Islam "from the first denounced aristocratic privilege, rejected hierarchy, and adopted a formula of the career open to the talents"<ref name="LewisNYRB"/> Muhammad's message transformed the society and [[Islamic ethics|moral order]] of life in the Arabian Peninsula through reorientation of society as regards to identity, world view, and the hierarchy of values. <ref> ''Islamic ethics'', [[Encyclopedia of Ethics]] </ref> Economic reforms addressed the plight of the poor, which was becoming an issue in pre-Islamic Mecca.<ref>''The Cambridge History of Islam'' (1977), p.34</ref> The Qur'an requires payment of an alms tax ([[zakat]]) for the benefit of the poor,<ref>Esposito (1998), p.30</ref> and as Muhammad's position grew in power he demanded that those tribes who wanted to ally with him implement the zakat in particular.<ref>''The Cambridge History of Islam'' (1977), p.52</ref> == Miracles in the Muslim biographies ==  [[Image:Dome of the rock distance.jpg|right|thumb|The [[Dome of the Rock]], built atop the [[Temple Mount]] in Jerusalem, marks the spot from which Muslims believe Muhammad ascended to Paradise.]] The pre-modern Muslim biographies of Muhammad envisions Muhammad as a cosmic figure, invested with superhuman qualities. Modern Muslim biographies of Muhammad however portray him as a progressive social reformer, a political leader and a model of human virtue. The view of these modern biographies is that Muhammad's real miracle, as Daniel Brown states modern historians would probably agree, 'was not a moon split or a sighing palm tree, but the transformation of the Arabs from marauding bands of nomads into world conquerors.'<ref name="Brown">Brown (1999), p.65</ref> [[Carl Ernst]] believes that this main shift away from presenting a miraculous view of Muhammad has been a response to the stridently negative depictions of Muhammad created by European authors.<ref>Ernst (2004), p.84</ref> Daniel Brown adds two more reasons: First, Muslims in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were faced with social and political turmoil. The desire for the restoration of the Muslim community encouraged them to view Muhammad as a model for social and political reform. And lastly, 'the ongoing challenge of reforming or reviving Islamic law perpetuated concern for the life of Muhammad as a normative model for human behavior.'<ref name="Brown">Brown (1999), p.65</ref> Ernst states that this main shift reflects the growth of bourgeois scientific rationalism in Muslim countries.<ref name="Ernst"/> ==Traditional views of Muhammad== ===Seal of the prophets=== [[Image:Wazir-mosque-ALLAH-Muhammad.jpg|thumb|left|[[Wazir Khan Mosque]] (16th century) Fresco painting with floral designs surrounding the words "Allah" and "Muhammad" in blue. Inscribed inside the names are Qur'anic verses; the one inside the word "Allah" is the [[Throne Verse|Ayat-ul-Kursi]] and the one inscribed inside the word "Muhammad" asserts that Muhammad is the [[Seal of the prophets|last prophet]].]] [[Image:Sahadah-Topkapi-Palace.JPG|thumb|[[Topkapi Palace]] gate with Shahadah and his seal. The Muslim [[Profession (religious)|Profession]] of faith, the [[Shahada]], illustrates the Muslim conception of the role of Muhammad - "There is No God (''ʾilāh'')<ref>[[Ilah]] is also translated as Deity, and means God in the sense of where there can be more than one, in plural, like the Roman Gods, Allah, on the other hand, can be translated as 'The God', and can only mean God where there is one, alone</ref> but God(''Allāh''), and Muhammad is His Messenger."]] Muslims believe Muhammad to be the last in a line of prophets of [[God]] (Arabic [[Allah]]) and regard his mission as one of restoring the original [[monotheism|monotheistic]] faith of [[Adam]], [[Abraham]] and other [[prophets of Islam]] that had become [[Tahrif|corrupted]] by man over time.<ref name="EspositoI">Esposito (1998) p.12; (1999) p.25; (2002) pp.4-5</ref><ref name="EoI-Muhammad"/><ref name="Peters">Peters (2003), p.9</ref> The Qur'an specifically refers to Muhammad as the "[[Seal of the Prophets]]", which is taken by most Muslims to believe him to be the last and greatest of the prophets.<ref>For further information on the meaning of the term, See Friedmann, 'Finality of Prophethood'; G.G. Stroumsa, 'Seal of the prophets: The Nature of a Manichaen Metaphor', JSAI, 7 (1986), 61-74; C.Colpe, 'Das Siegel der Propheten', Orientalia Suecana, 33-5 (1984-6), 71-83, revised version in C.Colpe, Das Siegel der Propheten, (Berlin, 1990), 227-43</ref><ref name="Ernst"/> Scholars such as Welch however hold that this Muslim belief is most likely a later interpretation of the [[Seal of the Prophets]].<ref name="EoI-Muhammad"/> [[Carl Ernst]] considers this phrase to mean that Muhammad's "imprint on history is as final as a wax seal on a letter".<ref name="Ernst"/> [[Wilferd Madelung]] states that the meaning of this term is not certain.<ref>Madelung (2004), p.17</ref> ===More traditions=== *Muslims tradition narrates miracles during his time growing up in the desert as an infant during the period when Muhammad was placed in the care of a [[Bedouin]] wet nurse - [[Halima Sadia]]. *After he returned to Mecca, he is said to have been beloved by all around him because he was such a polite and honest child. *As a youth, he was called upon to solve a vexing political problem for his Meccan neighbors. They were rebuilding the Kaaba and feuding over which clan should have the honor of raising the [[Black Stone]] into place. Muhammad suggested that the heads of each clan raise the Black Stone on a cloth, so that all had the honor of lifting it. Muhammad then put the stone into its place. *As a young man and a merchant, Muslim tradition asserts that Muhammad was known to be trustworthy and honest. The other Meccans called him "Al-Amin", the trustworthy one or the honest one.<ref> [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/prophet USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts: About the Prophet Muhammad] </ref> After he proclaimed his prophethood, however, his neighbors turned against him.   ===Depictions of Muhammad===  Muslims differ as to whether or not visual depictions of Muhammad are permissible. The position of the four main Sunni Muslim Maddhabs is that, to prevent [[idolatry]] and [[shirk (polytheism)|shirk]], visual depictions of Muhammad are forbidden; some non-maddhab groups, such as the [[Salafi]] movement, take a similar line.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4674864.stm BBC News: Q&A: Depicting the Prophet Muhammad]</ref> The Shia and others have historically taken a much less restrictive view of such depictions, allowing them if they are meant to praise Muhammad, while a school of Sufi'ism uses calligraphy of the name of Muhammad, Ali, Hussein and other important people in [[Muslim History]] to create images of the people.<ref>[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/n/a/2006/02/02/national/a140548S76.DTL Associated Press: Islam Forbids Visual Depiction of Muhammad]</ref> ===Muslim veneration of Muhammad===  It is traditional for Muslims to illustrate and express love and veneration for Muhammad. This is observed in a number of different ways. When Muslims say or write Muhammad's name, they usually follow it with ''[[Peace be upon him (Islam)|Peace be upon him]]'' or its Arabic equivalent, ''sallalahu alayhi wasallam'', and for Shias this is extended to ''Peace be upon him and his descendants''. In English this is often abbreviated to ''"([[pbuh]])"'', ''"(saw)"'' and ''"pbuh&hd"'' for Shias, or even just simply as "p". The Quran gave him the title '''Apostle of God''' (Arabic: ''[[Rasul]]-[[Allah]]'' or ''Rasulallah''), which has also been used by [[Muslims]], as well as the title "Prophet". Concerts of Muslim, and especially [[Sufi]], devotional music include songs praising Muhammad. There are religious songs [[Nasheeds]] which regularly praise Muhammad. Conversely, [[criticism of Muhammad]] is often equated with [[blasphemy]], which is punishable by death in Pakistan.<ref>''See, e.g.,'' Pakistani Penal Code, Act III of 1986, s 295-C and 298-C.</ref> ===Medieval Christian views of Muhammad===  While Muslim tradition has glorified and mythified Muhammad over centuries, Western tradition often has been critical towards him.<ref>Esposito (1998) p.14</ref> The medieval scholars and churchmen held that Islam was the work of Muhammad who in turn was inspired by [[Satan]]. Theories emerged, for example in order to show that Muhammad was the [[anti-Christ]], it was asserted that Muhammad died not in the year 632 but in the year 666 - the number of the Beast. A verbal expression of Christian contempt for Islam was expressed in turning his name from Muhammad to Mahound, the "devil incarnate".<ref> Reeves (2003), p.3 </ref> [[Bernard Lewis]] states that "The development of the concept of [[Mahound]] started with considering Muhammad as a kind of demon or false god worshipped with [[Apollyon]] and [[Termangant]] in an unholy trinity. After the reformation, Muhammad was conceived as a cunning and self-seeking impostor." <ref>Lewis (2002) p.45</ref>. Such criticisms have become less common over the last two centuries.<ref> Watt (1974) p.231.</ref> ===Other religious traditions in regard to Muhammad=== * The [[Druze]], who accept most but not all Qur'anic revelations, also consider him a prophet. * [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'ís]] venerate Muhammad as one of a number of prophets or "[[Manifestation of God|Manifestations of God]]", but consider his teachings to have been superseded by those of [[Bahá'u'lláh]]. ==See also==   *[[Arabian tribes that interacted with Muhammad]] *[[Depictions of Muhammad]] *[[criticism of Muhammad]] *[[Hadith]] *[[Hanif]] *[[Islam]] *[[Islamic view of Muhammad]] *[[Non-Islamic views of Muhammad]] *[[Paraclete]] *[[The Jyllands-Posten controversy]]  * [[List of films about Muhammad]] :*''[[Mohammad, Messenger of God (film)|Mohammad, Messenger of God]]'' (''aka'' The Message) :*''[[Muhammad: Legacy of a Prophet]] (documentary) * [[List of founders of world religions]] * [[List of Islamic terms in Arabic]] * [[Muezza]] * [[Muhammad's marriages]] * [[Muhammad's slaves]] * [[Sira]]  ==Notes== <div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">  <references/> </div> ==References== * *Ali, Wijdan. "[http://www2.let.uu.nl/Solis/anpt/ejos/pdf4/07Ali.pdf From the Literal to the Spiritual: The Development of Prophet Muhammad's Portrayal from 13th Century Ilkhanid Miniatures to 17th Century Ottoman Art]". In ''Proceedings of the 11th International Congress of Turkish Art'', eds. M. Kiel, N. Landman, and H. Theunissen. No. 7, 1–24. Utrecht, The Netherlands, August 23-28, 1999. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *. ====Encyclopedias==== * * * * * * * ==Further reading== * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ==External links==  ;Non-sectarian biographies * [http://www.pbs.org/muhammad Muhammad: Legacy of a Prophet - PBS Site] * [http://www.upf.tv/upf06/Projects/MuhammadDocumentary/tabid/175/Default.aspx Muhammad: Legacy of a Prophet - UPF (Producer's Site)] * [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761553918/Muhammad_(prophet).html/ Encarta Encyclopedia] * [http://31.1911encyclopedia.org/M/MA/MAHOMET.htm 1911 Encyclopedia article on Mahomet] *[http://www.answering-islam.org.uk/Books/Muir/Life1/index.htm William Muir: The Life of Mahomet] *[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1091 The Hero as Prophet] A passionate championship of Prophet Muhammad as a Hegelian agent of reform. by [[Carlyle, Thomas]] (1795-1881) On Heroes and the Heroic in History. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1966. ;Muslim biographies *[http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Books/SM_tsn/index.htm Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum (The Sealed Nectar)] * [http://comp.uark.edu/~muslim/publications/Ar-Raheeq%20Al-Makhtum.pdf PDF version of Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum] *[http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Books/MH_LM/default.htm The Life of Muhammad] by Muhammad Husayn Haykal *[http://www.bismikaallahuma.org/archives/2005/the-life-of-muhammad/ The Life of Muhammad] summarised version * [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/prophet/ About the Prophet Muhammad (University of Southern California)]