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Explanatory notes: We have chosen to be graded as a group for the project. Below are my personal contributions, and all the group worked to put together a new introduction. So far I also left 5 comments, including two in the Official Talk page.

My part in the wiki entry is the Consequences of sexual violence one, and I also edited the Extent section/now statistics section/, the prevention, I added a section on Perpetrators, and contributed to the Introduction. The problem with the original Consequences part is that I find it too brief and too much concentrated on rape, moreover it is based on an article of male-on-female-rape. Thus I aim to include other actors' perspectives too, and present general consequences of sexual violence without stressing on rape only. I used several resources and combined them in a table for greater visibility.

Main Introduction for the whole entry

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Sexual violence includes, but is not limited to rape. Although there is no agreed upon definition of sexual violence, the ones commonly applied encompass any act of sexual nature, or an attempt to obtain a sexual act, carried out through coercion. Sexual violence also includes physical and psychological violence directed at a person’s sexuality, including unwanted comments or advances, or acts of traffic such as forced prostitution or sexual slavery.[1][2][3]

Sexual violence, both in times of peace and armed conflict situations, is widespread and considered to be one of the most traumatic, pervasive, and most common violations human beings suffer.[4][5] It is a serious public health and human rights problem and has a profound both short- and/or long- term impact on physical and mental health. Though women and girls suffer disproportionately from this kind of violence, it can occur to anybody at any age. It is also an act of violence that can be perpetrated by parents, caregivers, acquaintances and strangers, as well as intimate partners. Sexual violence is rarely a crime of passion, it is rather an aggressive act that frequently aims to express power and dominance over the victim.

Sexual violence remains highly stigmatized in all settings, thus levels of disclosure of the assault vary between regions. In general, it is a widely underreported phenomenon, thus available data tend to underestimate the true scale of the problem. In addition, sexual violence is also a neglected area of research, thus deeper understanding of the issue is imperative in order to promote a coordinated movement against it. It is important to distinguish between domestic sexual violence and conflict-related sexual violence.[6] Often, people who coerce their spouses into sexual acts believe their actions are legitimate because they are married.In times of conflict, sexual violence tends to be an inevitable repercussion of warfare trapped in an ongoing cycle of impunity.[7][8] Rape of women and of men is often used as a weapon of war, as a form of attack on the enemy, typifying the conquest and degradation of its women or men or captured male or female fighters.[9] Even if strongly prohibited by IHRL, Customary law and IHL, enforcement mechanisms are still fragile or even non-existent in many corners of the world.[10][11][12][13]

From a historical perspective sexual violence was considered as only happening to women and as being commonplace and “normal” during both war and peace times from the Ancient Greeks to the 20th century. This led to the negligence of any indications of what the methods, aims and magnitude of such violence was. In fact, only at the end of the 20th century sexual violence was not considered anymore as a minor issue and was gradually criminalized with a wider focus on the victims.

The consequences of sexual violence

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Sexual violence is a serious public health problem and it has both short- and/or long- term negative physical and psychological effects on health and well-being.[14] There is evidence that male and female victims of sexual violence may experience similar mental health, behavioral and social consequences.[15][16][17] In child sexual abuse (CSA) cases, the child may suffer mental health disorders that can extend into adult life especially if sexual abuse involved actual intercourse.[18][19][20] Studies on abused boys have shown that around one in five continue in later life to molest children themselves.[21] CSA may lead to negative behavioral patterns in later life, learning difficulties as well as regression of/or slower development.[22]

The table below gives some examples of possible physical and psychological consequences of sexual violence:[23]

EXAMPLES OF FATAL OUTCOMES RELATED TO SEXUAL VIOLENCE

  • Suicide
  • Homicide
  • AIDS-related

EXAMPLES OF NON-FATAL OUTCOMES RELATED TO SEXUAL VIOLENCE

Physical consequences

Psychological consequences

  • Unwanted pregnancy
  • Infertility
  • Sexual dysfunction
  • Chronic pelvic pain
  • Sexually transmitted infections (stis), including hiv/aids
  • Obesity or anorexia
  • Urinary tract infections
  • Gastrointestinal disorders
  • Gynecological and pregnancy complications
  • Migraines and other frequent headaches
  • Fatigue
  • Nausea
  • Rape trauma syndrome
  • Post-traumatic stress disorder
  • Social phobias
  • Shock
  • Increased substance use or abuse;
  • Denial
  • Fear
  • Confusion
  • Anxiety
  • Guilt
  • Depression
  • Alienation

In addition to the above mentioned outcomes, in some cases victims of sexual violence may also be stigmatized and ostracized by their families and others.[24] Societal perceptions that the victim provoked sexual violence lead to a lack of disclosure of sexual assault which is associated with even more severe psychological consequences, particularly in children.[25] Thus, more interventions are needed in order to order to change societal attitudes towards sexual violence as well as efforts designed to educate those to whom the survivors may disclose the assault.[26][27]

Perpetrators of sexual violence

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There is no stereotypical profile of sexually violent persons. Perpetrators may be coming from various backgrounds, and they may be someone known by the victim like a friend, a family member, an intimate partner, an acquaintance, or they may be a complete stranger.[28]
The motivators behind sexually violent acts are power and control, and not, as it is widely perceived, a sexual desire. Sexual violence is rarely a crime of passion. It is rather a violent, aggressive and hostile act aiming to degrade, dominate, humiliate, terrorize and control the victim.[29] Some of the reasons for committing sexual violence are that it reassures the offender about his sexual adequacy, it discharges frustration, compensates for feelings of helplessness, and achieves sexual gratification.[30]

Underreporting of sexual violence

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Sexual violence is a widely underreported phenomenon, therefore available statistics are unlikely to inform about the true scale of the problem. Reasons for non-reporting include shame and embarrassment, fear of not being believed, fear of the perpetrator of the crime, fear of the legal process, or disbelief that the police would be able to do anything to help them.[31] Men are even more reluctant to report sexual violence due to extreme embarrassment and concerns about opinions of other people, their masculinity and the fact that they were unable to prevent the assault.[32] Thus information about the extent of sexual violence against males is especially limited. Child sexual abuse is also largely underreported. Most of the data comes from asking adults about their past experiences.[33] One of the reasons for non-reporting is that children lack independent access to resources. They normally require the cooperation of one of their parents who may refuse to believe their child, or may, in fact, be the perpetrator.[34]

Prevention

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The approaches to sexual violence vary between countries. Early interventions and the provision of psychological support may prevent or minimize many of the harmful and lasting psychological impacts of sexual assault.[35][36][37]

References

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  1. ^ [WHO (2002), ’Sexual violence’, in World Report in violence and health, Chapter 6, pp. 149]
  2. ^ [Elements of Crimes, Article 7(1)(g)-6 Crimes against humanity of sexual violence, elements 1. Accessed through http://www.icc-cpi.int/en_menus/icc/legal%20texts%20and%20tools/official%20journal/Pages/elements%20of%20crimes.aspx]
  3. ^ [McDougall, Ms. Gay J. (1998), Special Rapporteur, Contemporary forms of slavery: systematic rape, sexual slavery and slavery-like practices during armed conflict, Final report submitted by Ms. Jay J. McDougall, Special Rapporteur, E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13, para. 21]
  4. ^ Lindsey, Charlotte (2001). Women facing war. Geneva: ICRC. pp. 57–61.
  5. ^ "Advancement of women: ICRC statement to the United Nations, 2013". Retrieved 28 November 2013.
  6. ^ [Human Security Report (2012), Sexual Violence, Education and War: Beyond the mainstream narrative, Human Security Research Group, Simon Fraser University, Canada, Human Security Press]
  7. ^ International Committee of the Red Cross (2008). Women and War. Geneva: ICRC. p. 12.
  8. ^ United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (2007). The shame of war: sexual violence against women and girls in conflict. OCHA/IRIN Publication. pp. 57–75.
  9. ^ Swiss S et al. Violence against women during the Liberian civil conflict. Journal of the American Medical Association, 1998, 279:625–629.
  10. ^ Physicians for Human Rights (2002). War-related sexual violence in Sierra Leone : a population-based assessment : a report. Boston, MA: Physicians for Human Rights. ISBN 1-879707-37-3.
  11. ^ "Advancement of women: ICRC statement to the United Nations, 2013". Retrieved 28 November 2013.
  12. ^ Lindsey, Charlotte (2001). Women facing war. Geneva: ICRC. pp. 57–61.
  13. ^ United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (2007). The shame of war: sexual violence against women and girls in conflict. OCHA/IRIN Publication.
  14. ^ The World Health Organization (2003). Guidelines for medico-legal care for victims of sexual violence. Chapter 2: Sexual Violence: Prevalence, Dynamics and Consequences. Available at: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2004/924154628X.pdf
  15. ^ Patel V, Andrew G. (2001) Gender, sexual abuse and risk behaviours in adolescents: a cross-sectional survey in schools in Goa. National Medical Journal of India, 14(5):263–67.
  16. ^ Dube SR et al. (2005) Long-term consequences of childhood sexual abuse by gender of victim. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 28(5):430–38.
  17. ^ Andrews G et al. (2004) Child sexual abuse. In: Ezzati M, et al, eds. Comparative quantification of health risks: global and regional burden of disease attributable to selected major risk factors. Geneva, World Health Organization.
  18. ^ Jonas S., Bebbington P., McMans S., Meltzer H., Jenkins R., Kuipers E., Cooper C., King M., Brugha T. (2010) Sexual Abuse and Psychiatric Disorder in England: Results from the 2007 Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey. Psychol Med. 10: 1-11
  19. ^ Cheasty M., Clare A.W., Collins C. (1998) Relation Between Sexual Abuse in Childhood and Adult Depression: Case-Control Study. BMJ.
  20. ^ Briggs L. & Joyce P.R. (1997) What Determines Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Symptomatology for Survivors of Childhood Sexual Abuse? Child Abuse & Neglect. 21(6):575-582
  21. ^ Watkins B, Bentovim A. The sexual abuse of male children and adolescents: a review of current research. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 1992, 33:197–248
  22. ^ Maniglio R. (2009) The Impact of Child Sexual Abuse on Health : A Systematic Review of Reviews. Clinical Psychology Review. 29: 647-657
  23. ^ For detailed information on consequences of sexual violence see:
    Jewkes R, Sen P, Garcia-Moreno C. Sexual violence. In: Krug E, Dahlberg LL, Mercy JA, et al., editors. World Report on Violence and Health. Geneva (Switzerland): World Health Organization; 2002, pp. 213–239
    Felitti VJ, Anda RF, Nordenberg D, Williamson DF, Spitz AM, Edwards V, et al. Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: the Adverse Childhood Experiences study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 1998;14:245–258.
    Yuan NP, Koss MP, Stone M. The psychological consequences of sexual trauma. National On-line Resource Center on Violence Against Women. 2006. Available from: http://new.vawnet.org/Assoc_Files_VAWnet/AR_PsychConsequences.pdf
  24. ^ Mollica RF, Son L. Cultural dimensions in the evaluation and treatment of sexual trauma: an overview. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 1989, 12:363–379.
  25. ^ Ruggiero K.J., Smith D.W., Hanson R.F., Resnick H.S., Saunders B.E., Kilpatrick D.G., Best C.L. (2004) Is Disclosure of Childhood Rape Associated with Mental Health Outcome? Results from the National Women’s Study. Child Maltreat. 9(1):62-77
  26. ^ McNally R.J., Bryant R.A., & Ehlers A. (2003) Does Early Psychological Intervention Promote Recovery from Posttraumatic Stress? American Psychological Society. 4(2): 45-79
  27. ^ Campbell R., Dworkin E., & Cabral G. (2009) An Ecological Model of the Impact of Sexual Assault on Women’s Mental Health. Trauma Violence Abuse 10: 225-246
  28. ^ WHO (2003). Op. cit. p.7
  29. ^ Ibid, p. 9
  30. ^ Groth AN. (2000). The rapist’s view. In: Burgess AW, ed. Violence through a forensic lens. King of Prussia, PA, Nursing Spectrum.
  31. ^ Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) (1996) Womens Safety Australia 1996, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Canberra
  32. ^ WHO (2003). Op. cit. p. 16
  33. ^ Andrews G, Corry J, Slade T, Issakidis C, and Swanston H. (2004) Comparative risk assessment: child sexual abuse. Final report. Geneva, World Health Organization
  34. ^ Cook B, David F, Grant A. (2001) Sexual Violence in Australia. Australian Institute of Criminology Research and Public Policy Series No. 36
  35. ^ Astbury J, and Jewkes R. (in press) Sexual Violence: A Priority Research Area for Women’s Mental Health
  36. ^ Foa E.B., Davidson J.R.T., Frances A., & Ross R. (1999) Expert Consensus Guideline Series: Treatment for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 60 (Suppl 16)
  37. ^ Resnick H., Acierno R.&WaldropA.E. (2007) Randomized Controlled Evaluation of an Early Intervention to Prevent Post-Rape Psychopathology. Behav Res Ther. 45(10): 2432-2447
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