User:Nealthane/Theatre of ancient Rome

Evaluation of The Theatre of Ancient Rome

• Name of article: Theatre of ancient Rome
• Briefly describe why you have chosen this article to evaluate.
• The lead section outlines the information to come well. Most notably, it summarizes the ideas that will be further expressed and outlined in the body of the article in a way that is clear, concise, and to the point. As we go into the main headings, the tone and diction used by the author remains unbiased and neutral to the point that the author is truly just stating facts. No sentence begins with a particular point of view but rather a noted area of importance or an expansion on what was previously stated.The author begins the article with the main historical points of ancient Roman theater, then shifts into discussions of tragedy and comedy, with notable characters in plays being mentioned. Here, we are also introduced to the use of politics within plays that mirror that of Roman society at the time, and how this eventually leads to the history and structure of the stage, the type of actors that embody these plays, and the playwrights themselves.
• In terms of citations and sourcing, the article manages to do well in one, but may lack in the other. For citations, I have noticed that almost every paragraph and/or sentence has been cited or the notable word (suggestive of a great figure, play, etc.) has been hyperlinked for quick access within the Wikipedia database. Furthermore, all references are listed, but quite outdated, with a majority of these references lacking any links to the actual source and many of these sources being quite old/outdated ("1996"). Thus, this issue of sourcing needs to be addressed. Furthermore, there is a lot of information that could go into detailing these historical playwrights a little, particularly with regard to how Ancient Roman plays, which notably discuss and act out the politics and political turmoil of the time, are represented in a more modern political setting. In addition, I feel that there are certain areas within the body of the article that require further exploration, even though, from my initial read through, it has been well researched and developed.
• Finally with regard to WikiProjects and the conversations being had around this topic, the last recorded update to this article was made approximately four years prior, 2016, with no further updates or edits since then. I would like to work on this article and try to find new, unexplored areas around Roman theater that have not only been left unaddressed but may also add to future conversations and potential edits outside of my own inputs within this assignment.

• ^ Jump up to:^{a b c d e}

Bibliography

Sear, Frank. Roman Theatres : An Architectural Study. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.

Classical Drama and Society. "Chapter 12: The Romans and the Roman World." Accessed February 4, 2020. https://www.usu.edu/markdamen/ClasDram/chapters/121romhist.htm

Classical Drama and Society. "Chapter 13: Early Roman Drama and Theatre." Accessed February 4, 2020. https://www.usu.edu/markdamen/ClasDram/chapters/131romtheatre.htm

Manuwald, Gesine. Roman Republican Theater. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011.

Boyle, A. J. Tragic Seneca: An Essay in Theatrical Tradition. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2003. http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/ebookviewer/ebook/bmxlYmtfXzgzMjIzX19BTg2?sid=06859be3-68ee-49d8-9f63-a0bb9ac5f6a9@pdc-v-sessmgr05&vid=0&format=EB&rid=1

Liapis, Vayos, and George William Mallory Harrison. Performance in Greek and Roman Theatre. Leiden: Brill, 2013. http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=0&sid=8cf12006-b425-48a3-bfff-088cee3438c5%40sdc-v-sessmgr01&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#AN=546659&db=nlebk

Annotated Bibliography (Corrected Version)

Apologies for misunderstanding what was required during Week 6, I hope this makes sense as to what I am looking to draw upon from each source.

Sear, Frank. Roman Theatres : An Architectural Study. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 2006. https://www.academia.edu/6053159/Roman_Theatres_An_Architectural_Study

• This is the most important article that I will be pulling terms and concepts from as it will be used to expand on the most interesting aspects of Roman theatre (e.g., segregation of class, of gender, etc.), not just the architectural makeup of the theatre itself.
• I will also dive in a little on what leads to the construction of these theatres and how they are paid for.

Classical Drama and Society. "Chapter 12: The Romans and the Roman World." Accessed February 4, 2020. https://www.usu.edu/markdamen/ClasDram/chapters/121romhist.htm

• A general overview of how Rome integrated theatre into its culture
• How Roman theatre impacted the every-day Citizen
• What Theatre meant to the Romans every-day lives

Classical Drama and Society. "Chapter 13: Early Roman Drama and Theatre." Accessed February 4, 2020. https://www.usu.edu/markdamen/ClasDram/chapters/131romtheatre.htm

• How modern theatre is a reflection of Roman theatre in a way
• Expanding upon the origins of theatre in Rome (e.g., Etruscan/Native Italian influences) and how that is reflected in the makeup of the theatre in its plays and in its concepts of entertainment.
• With this article, I hope to also reflect these changes with the correct periods in which they occurred or expand on periods already given.

Manuwald, Gesine. Roman Republican Theater. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011. http://web.b.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.acadiau.ca:2048/ehost/ebookviewer/ebook/bmxlYmtfXzM2MTU4N19fQU41?sid=4a1c9138-385d-4136-9949-551d58fa2b06@pdc-v-sessmgr03&vid=0&format=EB&rid=1

• Here I hope to draw on greater connections between Greek and Roman Cultures, how Rome adopted aspects of Greek society into its own, and whether this was achieved through wars or by other means.

Boyle, A. J. Tragic Seneca: An Essay in Theatrical Tradition. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2003. http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/ebookviewer/ebook/bmxlYmtfXzgzMjIzX19BTg2?sid=06859be3-68ee-49d8-9f63-a0bb9ac5f6a9@pdc-v-sessmgr05&vid=0&format=EB&rid=1

• I found this article quite interesting, especially since it expands upon the apparently limited findings and understandings of tragedy in Roman theatre. Seneca had quite a profound influence on Roman Theatre and I really want to draw on what types of techniques he used to convey tragedy, which will hopefully lead to a better understanding of what tragedy meant in Rome, which may also explain why entertainment was favored over drama.

Theatre of ancient Rome

[All of my peer review will be done in italics in square brackets Of Noble Berth (talk) 04:42, 16 March 2020 (UTC) ]

Theatre of ancient Rome refers to the time period of theatrical practice and performance in Rome beginning in the 4th century B.C., following the state’s transition from monarchy to republic. Theatre during this era is generally separated into genres of tragedy and comedy, which are represented by a particular style of architecture and stage play, and conveyed to an audience purely as a form of entertainment and control. Some works by Plautus, Terence, and Seneca the Younger that survive to this day, highlight the different aspects of Roman society and culture at the time, including advancements in Roman literature and theatre. Theatre during this period of time would come to represent an important aspect of Roman society while simultaneously functioning as the primary means through which the Roman people could express their political emotions during the republican and imperial periods of Rome.

[“time period…beginning in the 4^th century B.C.[E?]” – The article is explicit about the beginning of ancient Roman theatre, when is this time period considered to end? “as a form of” may be better worded as: “as forms of.” The use of the word “control” here feels vague, even for an introduction. I assume your referring to Pompey and other politicians using the theatre to display their popular support. Maybe terms like “political control” or “popular demonstrations” would be clearer. “Some works by…that survive to this day” may be better worded, such as: “The surviving works of…”]

[“… and conveyed to an audience purely as a form of entertainment and control.”  “…functioning as the primary means through which the Roman people could express their political emotions during the republican and imperial periods of Rome.” These two parts of these sentences seem to have similar meanings. Maybe they could be combined somehow?]

Origins of Roman theatre[edit]

Rome was founded in 753 B.C.E as a monarchy under Etruscan rule, and remained as such throughout the first two and a half centuries of its existence. Following the expulsion of Rome's last king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, or "Tarquin the Proud," circa 509 B.C.E., Rome became a Republic, and was henceforth led by a group of magistrates elected by the Roman people. Roman theatre was born during the first two centuries of the Roman Republic, following the spread of Roman rule into a large area of the Italian peninsula, circa 364 B.C.E. Following the devastation of widespread plague in 364 B.C.E, Roman citizens began including theatrical games as a supplement to the Lectisternium ceremonies already being performed, in a stronger effort to pacify the gods. In the years following the establishment of these practices, actors began adapting these dances and games into performances by acting out texts set to music and simultaneous movement.

[“Rome was founded in 753 B.C.E as a monarchy under Etruscan rule, and remained as such throughout the first two and a half centuries of its existence. Following the expulsion of Rome's last king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, or "Tarquin the Proud," circa 509 B.C.E., Rome became a Republic, and was henceforth led by a group of magistrates elected by the Roman people. Roman theatre was born during the first two centuries of the Roman Republic, following the spread of Roman rule into a large area of the Italian peninsula, circa 364 B.C.E” – I don’t see how this is relevant to the topic. I think it should be removed as it seems to be unnecessary information.]

As the era of the Roman Republic progressed, citizens began including professionally performed drama in the eclectic offerings of the ludi (celebrations of public holidays) held throughout each year—the largest of these festivals being the Ludi Romani, held each September in honor of the Roman god Jupiter. It was as a part of the Ludi Romani in 240 B.C.E. that author and playwright Livius Adronicus became the first to produce translations of Greek plays to be performed on the Roman stage.

Prior to 240 B.C.E, native Italian culture, through further contact with northern and southern Italian cultures began to influence Roman concepts of entertainment. The early Roman stage was dominated by Phylakes( or a form of tragic parody that arose in Italy during the Roman Republic (500 - 250 B.C.E)), Atellan farces (or a type of comedy that depicted the supposed backwards thinking of the southeastern Oscan town of Atella; a form of ethnic humor that arose around 300 B.C.E), and Fescennine verses (originating in southern Etruria). Furthermore, Phylaces scholars have discovered vases depicting productions of Old Comedy (e.g. Aristophanes, a Greek play), leading many to ascertain that such Comedic plays were presented at one point to an Italian, if not "Latin-Speaking" audience as early as the 4th century. This is supported by the fact that Latin was an essential component to Roman Theatre. From 240 B.C.E to 100 B.C.E, Roman theatre had been introduced to a period of literary drama, within which classical and post-classical Greek plays had been adapted to Roman theatre. From 100 B.C.E till 476 C.E, Roman entertainment was once again captured by circus-like performances, spectacles, and miming.

[“Prior to 240 B.C.E, native Italian culture, through further contact with northern and southern Italian cultures began to influence Roman concepts of entertainment.” – The structure of this sentence is confusing. It sounds like “native Italian culture” is having contact with “northern and southern italian cultures” instead of with Rome. Also, what is meant by native Italian culture? And northern and southern Italian cultures? These terms seem vague. Do we know which specific cultures were interacting with Rome? Such as the Etruscans? Etc.]

[“was dominated by” – could use a colon “was dominated by:” “( or a form” could be better written as “(a form.” “Roman Republic (500 - 250 B.C.E)” – I don’t know if the dates are necessary here. “From 100 B.C.E till 476 C.E, Roman entertainment was once again captured by circus-like performances, spectacles, and miming.” – Do you mean to say plays fell out of favor? And how so? I know Seneca wrote his plays within this time period and Nero performed in plays (although this may be considered a circus-like performance). Were the spectacle performances always more popular in Rome, with plays receiving secondary considerations?]

The early drama that emerged was very similar to the drama in Greece. Rome had engaged in a number of wars, some of which had taken place in areas of Italy, in which Greek culture had been a great influence. Examples of this include the First Punic War (264-241 B.C.E) in Sicily. Through this came relations between Greece and Rome, starting with the emergence of a Hellenistic world, one in which Hellenic culture was more widely spread and through political developments via Roman conquests of Mediterranean colonies. Acculturation had become specific to Greco-Roman relations, with Rome mainly adopting aspects of Greek culture, their achievements, and developing those aspects into Roman literature, art, and science (combined with native influences). Rome had become the first fully developed European culture to shape their own culture after another. With end of the Third Macedonian War (168 B.C.E), Rome had gained greater access to a wealth of Greek art and literature, and an influx of Greek migrants, particularly Stoic philosophers such as Crates of Malles (168 B.C.E) and even Athenian philosophers (155 B.C.E). This allowed the Romans to develop an interest in a new form of expression. The development that occurred was first initiated by playwrights that were Greeks or half-Greeks living in Rome. While Greek literary tradition in drama influenced the Romans, the Romans chose to not fully adopt these traditions, and instead the dominant local language of Latin was used. These Roman plays that were beginning to be performed were heavily influenced by the Etruscan traditions, particularly regarding the importance of music and performance.

[“Hellenistic world, one in which Hellenic culture” – Hellenistic and Hellenic refer to two different time periods, the time before Alexander the Great and the time after him. I think you mean to say “Hellenistic culture. “(combined with native influences).” – This feels a bit vague. I assume you mean “native Italian influences” which still feels a bit vague to me. Also, from your previous paragraph, it is implied that Rome is mixing its culture with the other cultures on the Italian peninsula. It might be better to just remove “(combined with native influences).”]

[“Rome had become the first fully developed European culture to shape their own culture after another.” – I would be careful with this statement. Can we really say Rome is the first European culture to shape their own culture after another? We know Rome was influenced by other cultures on the peninsula. Hellenic Greece followed a similar path being influenced by Minoan culture. Also, what does it mean for a culture to be fully developed? Does this imply an end point? My understanding of culture is that it is always shifting and morphing while containing micro cultures within it.]

[“ to a wealth” – “to the wealth” ?  “This allowed the Romans to develop an interest in a new form of expression” – I assume by new form of expression your referring to philosophy, but I think this needs to be explicit as the next sentence starts talking about playwrights.]

Genres of ancient Roman theatre[edit]

When it came to Roman Theatre, Romans favored entertainment and performance over tragedy and drama, displaying a more modern form of theatre that is still used in contemporary times. 'Spectacle' became an essential part of an everyday Romans expectations when it came to Theatre.

[“ 'Spectacle' became an essential part of an everyday Romans expectations when it came to Theatre.” – I feel more detail and context is needed for the term Spectacle. What was Spectacle to the Romans? How was Spectacle incorporated into the Roman play? And a maybe unanswerable question: Why were Romans more interested in Spectacle over other forms of theatre?]

The first important works of Roman literature were the tragedies and comedies written by Livius Andronicus beginning in 240 BC. Five years later, Gnaeus Naevius, a younger contemporary of Andronicus, also began to write drama, composing in both genres as well. No plays from either writer have survived. By the beginning of the 2nd century BC, drama had become firmly established in Rome and a guild of writers (collegium poetarum) had been formed.

Roman tragedy[edit]

No early Roman tragedy survives, though it was highly regarded in its day; historians know of three early tragedians—Ennius, Pacuvius and Lucius Accius. One important aspect of tragedy that differed from other genres was the implementation of choruses that were included in the action on the stage during the performances of many tragedies.

From the time of the empire, however, the work of two tragedians survives—one is an unknown author, while the other is the Stoic philosopher Seneca. Nine of Seneca's tragedies survive, all of which are fabulae crepidatae (A fabula crepidata or fabula cothurnata is a Latin tragedy with Greek subjects)

Seneca appears as a character in the tragedy Octavia, the only extant example of fabula praetexta (tragedies based on Roman subjects, first created by Naevius), and as a result, the play was mistakenly attributed as having been authored by Seneca himself. However, though historians have since confirmed that the play was not one of Seneca's works, the true author remains unknown.

Senecan Tragedy put forth a declamatory style, or a style of tragedy that emphasized rhetoric structures. It was a style characterized through paradox, discontinuity, antithesis, and the adoption of declamatory structures and techniques that involved a aspects of compression, elaboration, epigram, and of course, hyperbole, as most of his plays seemed to emphasize such exaggerations in order to make points more persuasive. Seneca wrote tragedies that reflected the soul, through which rhetoric would be used within that process of creating a tragic character and reveal something about the state of one's mind. One of the most notable ways that Seneca developed a tragedy, was through the use of an aside, or a common theatre device found within Hellenistic drama, which at the time was foreign to the world of Attic tragedy. Seneca explored the interior of the psychology of the mind through 'self-presentational soliloquies or monologues,' which focused on one's inner thoughts, the central causes of their emotional conflicts, their self-deception, as well as other varieties of psychological turmoil that served to dramatize emotion in a way that became central to Roman tragedy, distinguishing itself from the prior used forms of Greek tragedy.

[Do we have any insight into how audiences reacted to this new Senecan Tragedy?]

Roman comedy[edit]

Further information: Metres of Roman comedy

All Roman comedies that have survived can be categorized as fabula palliata (comedies based on Greek subjects) and were written by two dramatists: Titus Maccius Plautus (Plautus) and Publius Terentius Afer (Terence). No fabula togata (Roman comedy in a Roman setting) has survived.

In adapting Greek plays to be performed for Roman audiences, the Roman comic dramatists made several changes to the structure of the productions. Most notable is the removal of the previously prominent role of the chorus as a means of separating the action into distinct episodes. Additionally, musical accompaniment was added as a simultaneous supplement to the plays' dialogue. The action of all scenes typically took place in the streets outside the dwelling of the main characters, and plot complications were often a result of eavesdropping by a minor character.

Plautus wrote between 205 and 184 B.C. and twenty of his comedies survive to present day, of which his farces are best known. He was admired for the wit of his dialogue and for his varied use of poetic meters. As a result of the growing popularity of Plautus' plays, as well as this new form of written comedy, scenic plays became a more prominent component in Roman festivals of the time, claiming their place in events which had previously only featured races, athletic competitions, and gladiatorial battles.

All six of the comedies that Terence composed between 166 and 160 BC have survived. The complexity of his plots, in which he routinely combined several Greek originals into one production, brought about heavy criticism, including claims that in doing so, he was ruining the original Greek plays, as well as rumors that he had received assistance from high ranking men in composing his material. In fact, these rumors prompted Terence to use the prologues in several of his plays as an opportunity to plead with audiences, asking that they lend an objective eye and ear to his material, and not be swayed by what they may have heard about his practices. This was a stark difference from the written prologues of other known playwrights of the period, who routinely utilized their prologues as a way of prefacing the plot of the play being performed.

Roman theatre in performance[edit]

Stage and physical space[edit]

Beginning with the first presentation of theatre in Rome in 240 B.C., plays were often presented during public festivals. Since these plays were less popular than the several other types of events (gladiatorial matches, circus events, etc.) held within the same space, theatrical events were performed using temporary wooden structures, which had to be displaced and dismantled for days at a time, whenever other spectacle events were scheduled to take place. The slow process of creating a permanent performance space was due to the staunch objection of high-ranking officials: it was the opinion of the members of the senate that citizens were spending too much time at theatrical events, and that condoning this behavior would lead to corruption of the Roman public. As a result, no permanent stone structure was constructed for the purpose of theatrical performance until 55 B.C.E. Sometimes theatre building projects could last generations before being completed, and would take a combination of private benefactors, public subscription, and proceeds from the summae honorariae or payments for office positions made by magistrates. To demonstrate their benefactions, statues or inscriptions (sometimes in sums of money) were erected or inscribed for all to see in front of the tribunalia, in the proscaenium or scaenae frons, parts of the building meant to be in the public eye. Building theatres required both a massive undertaking and a significant amount of time, often lasting generations.

Roman theatres, particularly western-style ones, were mainly modeled off of Greek ones. They were often arranged in a semicircle around an orchestra, but both the stage and scene building were joined together with the auditorium and were elevated to the same height, creating an enclosure very similar in structure and appearance to that of a modern theatre. This was furthered by odea or smaller theatres having roofs or larger theatres having vela, allowing for the audience to have some shade.

[“Roman theatres, particularly western-style ones, were mainly modeled off of Greek ones.” – What is meant by “western-style? The western Roman empire?]

During the time of these temporary structures, theatrical performances featured a very minimalist atmosphere. This included space for spectators to stand or sit to watch the play, known as a cavea, and a stage, or scaena. The setting for each play was depicted using an elaborate backdrop (scaenae frons), and the actors performed on the stage, in the playing space in front of the scaenae frons, called the proscaenium. These structures were erected in several different places, including temples, arenas, and at times, plays were held in Rome’s central square (the forum).

Societal divisions within the theatre were made apparent in how the auditorium was divided, typically by broad corridors or praecinctiones, into one of three zones, the ima, media, and summa cavea. These zones served to section off certain groups within the population. Of these three divisions, the summa cavea or 'the gallery' was where men (without togas or pullati (poor)), women, and sometimes slaves (by admission) sat. In terms of gender disparities, women could be seated not only under their upper-class husbands but at the bottom of the social hierarchy along with the poor and slaves, should they choose to. The article notes it wasn’t until Augustus that segregation in the theatre was enforced, to which women had to either sit at or near the back.

[“and sometimes slaves (by admission) sat”. – sat might be better worded as “were seated.” “In terms of gender disparities, women could be seated not only under their upper-class husbands but at the bottom of the social hierarchy along with the poor and slaves, should they choose to.” – This sentence is awkward. It might be better worded as: “The seating arrangements of the theatre highlight the gender disparities in Roman society, as women were seated among the slaves.” Or something similar. “The article notes” – might be better worded as “Sur notes”]

Theatres were paid for by certain benefactors and were seen as targets for benefaction, mainly out of the need to maintain civil order and as a consequence of the citizens desire for theatrical performance. Theatres were constructed almost always through the interests of those who held the highest ranks and positions in the Roman Republic. In order to maintain segregation of power, those of high rank were often seated near the front or in the public eye (tribunalia). Individuals who made benefactions to the construction of theatres would often do so for propaganda reasons, whether it be at the hand of an imperial benefactor or a wealthy individual, to which building a theatre was costly and it would rarely take the donations of a single individual to complete the project.

[“Individuals who made benefactions to the construction of theatres would often do so for propaganda reasons, whether it be at the hand of an imperial benefactor or a wealthy individual, to which building a theatre was costly and it would rarely take the donations of a single individual to complete the project.” – This is awkwardly worded. It may be better said as: “Individuals who made benefactions to the construction of theatres would often do so for propaganda reasons. Whether it be at the hand of an imperial benefactor or a wealthy individual, the high cost of building a theatre usually required more than a single individual’s donations.” Or something similar.]

In 55 B.C., the first permanent theatre was constructed. Built by Pompey the Great, the main purpose of this structure was actually not for the performance of drama, but rather, to allow current and future rulers a venue with which they could assemble the public and demonstrate their pomp and authority over the masses. With seating for 20,000 audience members, the grandiose structure held a 300-foot-wide stage, and boasted a three-story scaenae frons flanked with elaborate statues. The Theatre of Pompey remained in use through the early 6th century, but was dismantled for it stone in the Middle Ages. Virtually nothing of the vast structure is visible above ground today.

[I feel like this paragraph would work better after the paragraph ending in: “theatrical performance until 55 BCE.”]

[Overall]

[Nealthane, you have done some excellent research into the topic of Roman theatre and have added a lot to the Wikipedia article. The content you have added to the sections of the article you covered is strong. Particular spots, which I have noted above, need some wording revisions to make them easier to read. It may also add to the readability of the article, if the citations of every sentence were reduced to a citation every paragraph.

I found your section on Senecan Tragedy to be quite interesting as I have read a biography on Seneca but did not realize his play’s soliloquies were unique to the period. I did note in some places to maybe go into more detail. This may or may not be necessary as there is only so much one can put in a Wikipedia article. If that is the case it may be prudent to link to other Wikipedia pages throughout the article. Some more images added to the article may add one’s entertainment while reading, particularly if the images are added on the left side of the page.

You’ve managed to take an article already filled with a great deal of information and flesh it out even more, great work! A couple of things the article left me wondering about is whether we know how roman audience would have reacted to certain plays, especially political plays. Were any plays condemned by the roman people or did they just eat it up? What were some of the opinions around these plays? And finally, do we know anything about stage direction or possible props they used in plays? What kind of costumes did they wear? If any? Also actors were considered a lowly class, do we know why?

If you have any questions or need me to clarify anything please feel free to contact me. Again great work! Cheers Of Noble Berth (talk) 04:42, 16 March 2020 (UTC) ]

Evaluation of 2nd Peer Review:

I have decided to add in not only the necessary corrections as has been well-evaluated above but to also add in any needed additional information, to ensure that all added areas have been fleshed out properly. In addition, I have also corrected the noted non-bold areas (the original content) for any discrepancies in regards to my own added text. Lastly, I will plan to incorporate images into the article, such as ones depicting theatres in ancient Rome, and then transfer the text over into the official article.

Theatre of ancient Rome

The architectural form of theatre in Rome has been linked to later, more well-known examples from the 1st century B.C.E. to the 3rd Century C.E. The Theatre of ancient Rome referred to as a period of time in which theatrical practice and performance took place in Rome has been linked back even further to the 4th century B.C.E., following the state’s transition from monarchy to republic. Theatre during this era is generally separated into genres of tragedy and comedy, which are represented by a particular style of architecture and stage play, and conveyed to an audience purely as a form of entertainment and control. When it came to the audience, Romans favored entertainment and performance over tragedy and drama, displaying a more modern form of theatre that is still used in contemporary times. 'Spectacle' became an essential part of an everyday Romans expectations when it came to Theatre. Some works by Plautus, Terence, and Seneca the Younger that survive to this day, highlight the different aspects of Roman society and culture at the time, including advancements in Roman literature and theatre.Theatre during this period of time would come to represent an important aspect of Roman society during the republican and imperial periods of Rome.

Origins of Roman theatre[edit]

Following the devastation of widespread plague in 364 B.C.E, Roman citizens began including theatrical games as a supplement to the Lectisternium ceremonies already being performed, in a stronger effort to pacify the gods. In the years following the establishment of these practices, actors began adapting these dances and games into performances by acting out texts set to music and simultaneous movement.

As the era of the Roman Republic progressed, citizens began including professionally performed drama in the eclectic offerings of the ludi (celebrations of public holidays) held throughout each year—the largest of these festivals being the Ludi Romani, held each September in honor of the Roman god Jupiter. It was as a part of the Ludi Romani in 240 B.C.E. that author and playwright Livius Adronicus became the first to produce translations of Greek plays to be performed on the Roman stage.

Prior to 240 B.C.E, Roman contact with northern and southern Italian cultures began to influence Roman concepts of entertainment. The early Roman stage was dominated by: Phylakes(a form of tragic parody that arose in Italy during the Roman Republic from 500 to 250 B.C.E), Atellan farces (or a type of comedy that depicted the supposed backwards thinking of the southeastern Oscan town of Atella; a form of ethnic humor that arose around 300 B.C.E), and Fescennine verses (originating in southern Etruria). Furthermore, Phylakes scholars have discovered vases depicting productions of Old Comedy (e.g. Aristophanes, a Greek play), leading many to ascertain that such Comedic plays were presented at one point to an Italian, if not "Latin-Speaking" audience as early as the 4th century. This is supported by the fact that Latin was an essential component to Roman Theatre. From 240 B.C.E to 100 B.C.E, Roman theatre had been introduced to a period of literary drama, within which classical and post-classical Greek plays had been adapted to Roman theatre. From 100 B.C.E till 476 C.E, Roman entertainment began to be captured by circus-like performances, spectacles, and miming while remaining allured by theatrical performance.

Roman Theatre in Orange, South of France

The early drama that emerged was very similar to the drama in Greece. Rome had engaged in a number of wars, some of which had taken place in areas of Italy, in which Greek culture had been a great influence. Examples of this include the First Punic War (264-241 B.C.E) in Sicily. Through this came relations between Greece and Rome, starting with the emergence of a Hellenistic world, one in which Hellenistic culture was more widely spread and through political developments via Roman conquests of Mediterranean colonies. Acculturation had become specific to Greco-Roman relations, with Rome mainly adopting aspects of Greek culture, their achievements, and developing those aspects into Roman literature, art, and science. Rome had become one first developing European cultures to shape their own culture after another. With end of the Third Macedonian War (168 B.C.E), Rome had gained greater access to a wealth of Greek art and literature, and an influx of Greek migrants, particularly Stoic philosophers such as Crates of Mallus (168 B.C.E) and even Athenian philosophers (155 B.C.E).This allowed the Romans to develop an interest in a new form of expression, philosophy. The development that occurred was first initiated by playwrights that were Greeks or half-Greeks living in Rome. While Greek literary tradition in drama influenced the Romans, the Romans chose to not fully adopt these traditions, and instead the dominant local language of Latin was used. These Roman plays that were beginning to be performed were heavily influenced by the Etruscan traditions, particularly regarding the importance of music and performance.

Genres of ancient Roman theatre[edit]

The first important works of Roman literature were the tragedies and comedies written by Livius Andronicus beginning in 240 BC. Five years later, Gnaeus Naevius, a younger contemporary of Andronicus, also began to write drama, composing in both genres as well. No plays from either writer have survived. By the beginning of the 2nd century BC, drama had become firmly established in Rome and a guild of writers (collegium poetarum) had been formed.

Roman tragedy[edit]

No early Roman tragedy survives, though it was highly regarded in its day; historians know of three early tragedians—Ennius, Pacuvius and Lucius Accius. One important aspect of tragedy that differed from other genres was the implementation of choruses that were included in the action on the stage during the performances of many tragedies.

From the time of the empire, however, the work of two tragedians survives—one is an unknown author, while the other is the Stoic philosopher Seneca. Nine of Seneca's tragedies survive, all of which are fabulae crepidatae (A fabula crepidata or fabula cothurnata is a Latin tragedy with Greek subjects)

Seneca appears as a character in the tragedy Octavia, the only extant example of fabula praetexta (tragedies based on Roman subjects, first created by Naevius), and as a result, the play was mistakenly attributed as having been authored by Seneca himself. However, though historians have since confirmed that the play was not one of Seneca's works, the true author remains unknown.

Senecan Tragedy put forth a declamatory style, or a style of tragedy that emphasized rhetoric structures. It was a style characterized through paradox, discontinuity, antithesis, and the adoption of declamatory structures and techniques that involved a aspects of compression, elaboration, epigram, and of course, hyperbole, as most of his plays seemed to emphasize such exaggerations in order to make points more persuasive. Seneca wrote tragedies that reflected the soul, through which rhetoric would be used within that process of creating a tragic character and reveal something about the state of one's mind. One of the most notable ways that Seneca developed a tragedy, was through the use of an aside, or a common theatre device found within Hellenistic drama, which at the time was foreign to the world of Attic tragedy. Seneca explored the interior of the psychology of the mind through 'self-representational soliloquies or monologues,' which focused on one's inner thoughts, the central causes of their emotional conflicts, their self-deception, as well as other varieties of psychological turmoil that served to dramatize emotion in a way that became central to Roman tragedy, distinguishing itself from the prior used forms of Greek tragedy. Those that witnessed Seneca's use of Rhetoric; pupils, readers, and audience, were noted to have been taught Seneca's use of verbal strategy, psychic mobility, and public role-play, which for many, substantially altered the mental states of many individual's.

Roman comedy[edit]

Further information: Metres of Roman comedy

All Roman comedies that have survived can be categorized as fabula palliata (comedies based on Greek subjects) and were written by two dramatists: Titus Maccius Plautus (Plautus) and Publius Terentius Afer (Terence). No fabula togata (Roman comedy in a Roman setting) has survived.

In adapting Greek plays to be performed for Roman audiences, the Roman comic dramatists made several changes to the structure of the productions. Most notable is the removal of the previously prominent role of the chorus as a means of separating the action into distinct episodes. Additionally, musical accompaniment was added as a simultaneous supplement to the plays' dialogue. The action of all scenes typically took place in the streets outside the dwelling of the main characters, and plot complications were often a result of eavesdropping by a minor character.

Plautus wrote between 205 and 184 B.C. and twenty of his comedies survive to present day, of which his farces are best known. He was admired for the wit of his dialogue and for his varied use of poetic meters. As a result of the growing popularity of Plautus' plays, as well as this new form of written comedy, scenic plays became a more prominent component in Roman festivals of the time, claiming their place in events which had previously only featured races, athletic competitions, and gladiatorial battles.

All six of the comedies that Terence composed between 166 and 160 BC have survived. The complexity of his plots, in which he routinely combined several Greek originals into one production, brought about heavy criticism, including claims that in doing so, he was ruining the original Greek plays, as well as rumors that he had received assistance from high ranking men in composing his material. In fact, these rumors prompted Terence to use the prologues in several of his plays as an opportunity to plead with audiences, asking that they lend an objective eye and ear to his material, and not be swayed by what they may have heard about his practices. This was a stark difference from the written prologues of other known playwrights of the period, who routinely utilized their prologues as a way of prefacing the plot of the play being performed.

Roman theatre in performance[edit]

Stage and physical space[edit]

Beginning with the first presentation of theatre in Rome in 240 B.C., plays were often presented during public festivals. Since these plays were less popular than the several other types of events (gladiatorial matches, circus events, etc.) held within the same space, theatrical events were performed using temporary wooden structures, which had to be displaced and dismantled for days at a time, whenever other spectacle events were scheduled to take place. The slow process of creating a permanent performance space was due to the staunch objection of high-ranking officials: it was the opinion of the members of the senate that citizens were spending too much time at theatrical events, and that condoning this behavior would lead to corruption of the Roman public. As a result, no permanent stone structure was constructed for the purpose of theatrical performance until 55 B.C.E. Sometimes theatre building projects could last generations before being completed, and would take a combination of private benefactors, public subscription, and proceeds from the summae honorariae or payments for office positions made by magistrates. To demonstrate their benefactions, statues or inscriptions (sometimes in sums of money) were erected or inscribed for all to see in front of the tribunalia, in the proscaenium or scaenae frons, parts of the building meant to be in the public eye. Building theatres required both a massive undertaking and a significant amount of time, often lasting generations.

Roman theatres, particularly ones constructed in western-Roman, were mainly modeled off of Greek ones. They were often arranged in a semicircle around an orchestra, but both the stage and scene building were joined together with the auditorium and were elevated to the same height, creating an enclosure very similar in structure and appearance to that of a modern theatre. This was furthered by odea or smaller theatres having roofs or larger theatres having vela, allowing for the audience to have some shade.

During the time of these temporary structures, theatrical performances featured a very minimalist atmosphere. This included space for spectators to stand or sit to watch the play, known as a cavea, and a stage, or scaena. The setting for each play was depicted using an elaborate backdrop (scaenae frons), and the actors performed on the stage, in the playing space in front of the scaenae frons, called the proscaenium. These structures were erected in several different places, including temples, arenas, and at times, plays were held in Rome’s central square (the forum).

Societal divisions within the theatre were made apparent in how the auditorium was divided, typically by broad corridors or praecinctiones, into one of three zones, the ima, media, and summa cavea. These zones served to section off certain groups within the population. Of these three divisions, the summa cavea or 'the gallery' was where men (without togas or pullati (poor)), women, and sometimes slaves (by admission) were seated. The seating arrangements of the theatre highlight the gender disparities in Roman society, as women were seated among the slaves. Sur notes that it wasn’t until Augustus that segregation in the theatre was enforced, to which women had to either sit at or near the back.

Theatres were paid for by certain benefactors and were seen as targets for benefaction, mainly out of the need to maintain civil order and as a consequence of the citizens desire for theatrical performance. Theatres were constructed almost always through the interests of those who held the highest ranks and positions in the Roman Republic. In order to maintain segregation of power, those of high rank were often seated near the front or in the public eye (tribunalia). Individuals who made benefactions to the construction of theatres would often do so for propaganda reasons. Whether it be at the hand of an imperial benefactor or a wealthy individual, the high cost of building a theatre usually required more than a single individual’s donations.

In 55 B.C., the first permanent theatre was constructed. Built by Pompey the Great, the main purpose of this structure was actually not for the performance of drama, but rather, to allow current and future rulers a venue with which they could assemble the public and demonstrate their pomp and authority over the masses. With seating for 20,000 audience members, the grandiose structure held a 300-foot-wide stage, and boasted a three-story scaenae frons flanked with elaborate statues. The Theatre of Pompey remained in use through the early 6th century, but was dismantled for it stone in the Middle Ages. Virtually nothing of the vast structure is visible above ground today.