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Introduction

The Language of Karko (Sudan) has less than 8,000 speakers globally and is considered an endangered language. Language endangerment arises from the lack of use of a particular language in all domains. In Karko, the language that is most commonly spoken by the people is Arabic. Karko is classified as a Nubian language and is also known as: Garko, Kithonirishe, Nubian (Hill), or Ajang. The Nubia Mountains are known for it's linguistic complexity. The vast diversity of languages among the Nuba Mountains indicates that the mountains were viewed as a retreat area by many people in the past. There are over 40 different languages spoken in the Nuba Mountains. The 10 known groups that have settled among the Nuba Mountains are:

1. Heiban (45%): 10 languages
2. Narrow Talodi (65%): 8 languages
3. Tegem (=Lafofa): 1 language
4. Rashad (55%): 2 languages
5. Katla (50%): 2 languages
6. Kadugli (60%): 6 languages
7. Nyimang (60%): 2 languages
8. Temein (60%): 2 languages
9. Daju (60%): 2 languages
10. Nubian (85%): 7 languages

Majority of these language groups are present only in the Nuba Mountains. Daju and Nubian are the only languages that are not restricted in the Nuba Mountains.

Nubian

Languages:

1. Dair
2. Kadaru
3. Dilling
4. Ghulfan (Uncunwee)
5. Karko
6. Wali
7. Tabag
8. El Hugeirat

Daju

Languages:

1. Lagawa
2. Laggori
3. Shatt

Nyimang

Languages:

1. Nyimang (Ama)
2. Afitti

Temein

Languages:

1. Temein
2. Keiga Jirru
3. Tese

Kadugli (Kadu)

Languages:

1. Tulishi
2. Keiga
3. Kadugli
4. Miri
5. Kanga
6. Tumma
7. Katcha
8. Krongo
9. Tumtum

Katla

Languages:

1. Katla
2. Tima
3. Julud

Heiban

Languages:

1. Koalib
2. Laro
3. Ebang
4. Shwai
5. Moro
6. Otoro
7. Tira
8. Lukha
9. Werni
10. Kau, Nyaro, Funker

Rashad

Languages:

1. Tegali
2. Tagom
3. Tagoi
4. Turjok

Talodi

Languages:

1. Talodi
2. Eliri
3. Masking, Dagig
4. Acheron
5. Tocho
6. Lumun

Lafofa

Languages:

1. Tekeim
2. Al Amira

History

Prior to 1956, it was declared by the government that Arabic should be the official language of Sudan, excluding and neglecting all the other languages. Proceeding these new changes in policies, the language movements were continuously enforced in the following years. It was in the 1960s when Arabic became the official language used and/or taught in all government schools among Sudan. Due to language policy resistance in the South there have been multiple Civil Wars between 1955 and 1972 as well as 1983 and 2004. In 2004, the Naivasha Peace Protocol was signed by the government and the people of Sudan.

The protocol contained the following statements:

1. All the indigenous languages are national languages that shall be respected, developed, and promoted.
2. The Arabic language is the most widely spoken national language in Sudan.
3. English shall be the official working languages for national government business and for instruction in higher education.
4. The legislature of any subnational level of government ma adopt any national language(s) as additional official working language(s) at its level.
5. The use of either language at any level of government or education shall not be discriminated against.

Linguistic Research in the Nubia Mountains

A survey was conducted in the State of Kordofan, northern Sudan at 11° 50' to 12° 00' N latitude and 29° 15' to 29° 40' E longitude.

The languages spoken in this area were:

1. Ama

• Alternative names: Nyimang, Inyimang, Nyima, Nyiman.
• Classification: Nilo-Saharan, Eastern Sudanic, Western, Nyimang
• Dialects: Lexical similarity 59% with Afitti.

2. Karko

• Alternative names: Garko, Kithonirishe
• Classification: Nilo-Saharan, Eastern Sudanic, Eastern, Nubian, Central, Hill, Unclassified
• Dialects: -

3. Wali

• Alternative names: Walari, Walarishe
• Classification: Nilo-Saharan, Eastern Sudanic, Eastern, Nubian, Central, Hill, Unclassified
• Dialects: -

Ama Speakers

Majority of Ama speakers live in various villages among the Nuba Mountains including: Kalara, Koromiti, Nitil, Al Fous, Kakara, Hajar Sultan, Salara, Afunj, Fuony, and Male. An estimated 11,000 people among these areas speak Ama. The people of Ama often use their language at home with their children and/or at work. Arabic is spoken in the domains of religion (because majority of Ama are muslims), government, and education. Arabic was declared the official language of instruction in all school levels around the 1960s and is therefore taught as a second language to children.

Karko and Wali Speakers

Karko and Wali speakers essentially speak the same language, Ajang. Unlike Ama, which differs in linguistics basics compared to Karko and Wali. The term "Ajang" is used to describe several forms of Sudanese languages among the Nubia Mountains. The villages that speak Ajang include: Karko, Kasha, Shifir, Kujuria, Fanda, Wali, Elek, Abu Januk, Kamda, Shingil, Ghulfan, Kudur, Dadaru, and Tabak. In Karko, the population is roughly a total of 8,000 people, but not everyone speaks Karko. The language that is used most commonly used is Arabic and is therefore the first language that is taught to children. In most cases, children can understand the language of Karko but cannot speak it. However, Arabic is not used in the Shingil villiage and only Karko is used. In addition, Karko speakers often refer to themselves either Karko or Kakenbi.

In Wali, there is a population of about 9,000 people in which the majority and/or all of them speak Wali. However, Wali speakers are able to read Arabic and English. The younger population in Wali often speak in Wali and/or English.

Additional Links

For more information on specific linguistic characteristics and/or variations among Hill Nubian languages visit the following links:

• http://digitalcommons.fairfield.edu/djns/vol1/iss1/10

• http://digitalcommons.fairfield.edu/djns/vol2/iss1/9

• http://digitalcommons.fairfield.edu/djns/vol2/iss1/13