User:NaNa210/sandbox

For the Dinophysis acuminata article, I plan to add a little section that talks in general about the genus of this species. Also, since some pieces of the article wasn't very well represented, I plan to help it become less plagiarized. Another contribution I can make to this article will be to add more facts to the endosymbiosis and feeding section. There are lots of cases where encounters with the species has caused problems to aquatic ecosystems. A little section about the current issues with this species will also be a great addition to the article as well as any current human interference and interactions will also be added to the article. Any facts I find about the benefits and dangers of Dinophysis acuminata will also be included in a short section titled BENEFITS AND DANGERS. Overall, any information that I find on this species will be included and referenced in the article as long as the previous did not include that in the article.

Bibliographies

·        https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3917280/

·        http://botany.si.edu/references/dinoflag/Taxa/Dacuminata.htm

·        http://botany.si.edu/references/dinoflag/Taxa/Dnorvegica.htm

·        Stern, R.F., A.L. Amorim, and E. Bresnan. "Diversity And Plastid Types In Dinophysis Acuminata Complex (Dinophyceae) In Scottish Waters." Harmful Algae 39.(2014): 223-231. ScienceDirect. Web. 8 Oct. 2016

·        García-Altares, M., et al. "Bloom Of Dinophysis Spp. Dominated By D. Sacculus And Its Related Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) Outbreak In Alfacs Bay (Catalonia, NW Mediterranean Sea): Identification Of DSP Toxins In Phytoplankton, Shellfish And Passive Samplers." Regional Studies In Marine Science 6.(2016): 19-28. ScienceDirect. Web. 8 Oct. 2016

·        Giménez Papiol, Gemma, et al. "The Use Of A Mucus Trap By Dinophysis Acuta For The Capture Of Mesodinium Rubrum Prey Under Culture Conditions." Harmful Algae 58.(2016): 1-7. ScienceDirect. Web. 8 Oct. 2016

·        Mafra Jr., Luiz L., et al. "Harmful Effects Of Dinophysis To The Ciliate Mesodinium Rubrum: Implications For Prey Capture." Harmful Algae 59.(2016): 82-90. ScienceDirect. Web. 8 Oct. 2016.

·        Díaz, Patricio A., et al. "Climate Variability And Dinophysis Acuta Blooms In An Upwelling System." Harmful Algae 53.Applied Simulations and Integrated Modelling for the Understanding of Toxic and Harmful Algal Blooms (ASIMUTH) (2016): 145-159. ScienceDirect. Web. 8 Oct. 2016.

·        Villalobos, Leilen Gracia, et al. "Dinophysis Species Associated With Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning Episodes In North Patagonian Gulfs (Chubut, Argentina)." Journal Of Shellfish Research 3 (2015): 1141. Academic OneFile. Web. 8 Oct. 2016.

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ARTICLE DRAFT including peer review revisions and FINISHING TOUCHES

Feeding

Food vacuoles found in the vacuoles of this primitive genus indicates that organisms in this genus are mixotrophs especially D. norvegica. Mixotroph is the ability of an organism to use different sources of carbon and energy instead of having a single mode of feeding (autotroph or heterotroph). However, certain species related to Dinophysis acuminata prefer one mode of feeding over another. Dinophysis rotundata uses Myzocytosis to feed. Their mixotrophic conditions and size are influenced by prey populations and Hydrography conditions.

Ecology and current threats of Dinophysis:

Dinophysis acuminata has caused several problems in oceanic ecosystems. The main cause of DSP, Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning, outbreaks in waters along Europe has been due to this species.Likewise, the close knit sisters of Dinophysis acuminata called Dinophysis norvegica, a photosynthetic organism with yellow chloroplast and posterior nucleus, Dinophysis acuta, and Dinophysis fortii have also been known to cause the same problems as D. acuminata. Dinophysis norvegica is a marine plankton dinoflagellate that is found in neritic waters. This species of the Dinophysis genus is a bloom-forming toxic species. Both species reproduce asexually by binary fission to make identical copies of itself. Speculations of sexual dimorphism that is the difference between the female and male counterparts have allowed researchers to draw conclusion that species of this genus can undergo sexual reproduction.

The first record of DSP with Dinophysis acuminata and Dinophysis fortii was in 1980 in the Patagonian coast. A year after the report, another occurrence of DSP unleashed in December 1993 and November 1994.Dinophysis acuminata releases lipophilic shellfish toxins (LSTs) and have been found to cause trouble to ecological marines and aquaculture farmers'''. The lipophilic toxins accumulate in shellfishes and causes diarrhea and shellfish poisoning to consumers. Dinophysis acuminata is the cause of DSP in Brazil and creates a disturbing impact due to its long and early blooming species. However, their presence is restricted around the spring and summer, but in higher concentrations in December. DSP is a particular kind food poisoning that causes severe gastrointestinal illness in humans and this is related to the ingestion of toxin contaminated shellfishes from contaminated water. Some of the symptoms of DSP include diarrhea, stomach pain, vomiting, nausea and fever; reported human ingestion shows that the toxins are capable of causing stomach tumors and chronic problems to consumers. Government involvement as a result of high concentrations of toxins in the Dinophysis toxic shellfish epidemic has caused economic crisis in Europe and the aquaculture industry''.

Dinophysis Morphology

Dinophysis acuminata can be very hard to identify, and requires careful observations. Dinophysis acuta can be identified by its midsection. It is very large (38-55μm) and wide (30-38μm) in the middle unlike Dinophysis norvegica that is 34-50μm long and 36-43μm wide. The Dinophysis norvegica is smaller and widest in the middle region.Dinophysis norvegica and Dinophysis acuminata are a very similar species as a result, they exhibits similar behaviors and are commonly misidentified. Furthermore, other ways to identify D. acuminata from other Dinophysis species can be done by comparison of the left sulcal list (cellulose extensions of the cell) and LSL identification in ribs.Cells have convex dorsal margins and small oval shaped cells and their thecal plates are covered with areolae (circular depression on the cellulose wall of a dinoflagellate) each with a pore. Continuously, the knob-shaped protrusions and round antapex (botton end of a dinoflagellate) are ways to identify D.acuminata.