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The memoirs of Francesco Crispi tell the conversation in which Tripoli was discussed during the Congress of Berlin.[1] The discussion was halted as it was not a priority, Italy's attention in the congress was focused on Tripoli, which they believed was their right; their expansion into Tripoli was reluctantly accepted by other European Powers[2] The Italian occupation of Tripoli was discussed in the Italian press during the following years, Tripolitania was expecting Italians. [2]
Libyan Resistance
[edit]The Italian Fascist Party assumed office in 1922, they believed fraternising with the local Libyan Leaders was a failure of the previous colonial practice. [3] Instead, the fascists opted for establishing forces with an aim to 'pacify' the local population.[3] The foundation of their ideas was based on racial supremacy and Social Darwinism. The belief in a hierarchy of races meant that the Italians therefore had a duty to colonise African nations.[3]This led to the subjugation of Libyans, as policies before 1922 were dismissed, such as the colonial official's push to "Italianise" its colonies education. [3] For example, the censorship of Italian culture from the native population, banned education after the sixth grade and terminated teaching italian in classrooms, replacing it with Arabic.[3] Libyans were only allowed to work as Labourers.[3] The banning of Italian in class was with the intention 'protect' Italian culture, and exclude Libyans.
Benito Mussolini gave General Rodolfo Graziani responsibility for the pacification of Libya, due to previous success in the reoccupation of Tripolitania and Fezzan.[3]Tripolitanian resistance was not as as substantial, as various tribes cooperated with Italians.[4] However, Graziani saw Cyrenaica as a problem due to the united force of Cyrenaican tribesmen and merchants. [3] Joined together Sanusiyya, the religious and social movement, 70 years of assembling.[3]As a consequence they was able to forge a unified front that shared an anti-colonial, pan-Islamic ideology, that successfully resisted colonialism. [3]
Guerrilla warfare in 1924, by Shaykh Rida, brother of Sayyid Idris, was able to contain Italians, with a force of 2,00 to 6,000 tribalmen.[5] In December 1925, an agreement between Great Britain cemented Italys jurisdiction on Jaghbub and Kufra.[5] This made guerrilla attacks more tortuous, as Italians established control by making it impossible for Rida to attack. The Italians did this by constructing fences across the border and patrolling with aircrafts and cars.[5]Shaykh Rida was arrested in January 1928 and exiled to Sicily.[5]
The resistance was later led by 'Umar Al-Mukhtar. The Al-Mukhtar resistance notably included a network of spies in Italian enforced towns. [3] It was estimated by Graziani that the native guerrillas were around 3.000 and they owned about 20,000 guns. [3]Al-Mukhtar and the Cyrenacians had advantages over the Italians as they knew the terrain, and used the mountains and trails as a trump card.[3] In 1931, Al-Mukhtar engaged in 250 attacks with the Italian army, Italian officials attempted to bribe 'Umar al-Mukhtar, with salary and retirement but were rejected.[3]A combination of religious or political encouraged the indigenous peoples of Libya to resist Italian control vigorously, which some interpret as another stage of The Great War. [6] The resistance validated the practical skills of Libyan fighters.[6]Tactics such as travelling across mountains and caravan routee, gave them windows of opportunity to attack .[6] A colonial authority described the rebels as excellent fighters who possessed instinctive war skills and tactics.[6]
Resistance in both Cyrenaica and Tripolitania was not uniquely based on religious motives but instead was a virtue of the colonial struggle, especially within Cyrenaica, they fought with both religious order and tribal support, the latter being immensely supportive.[5] In 1915, Italian domination was declining, with forces being held only withincoastal cities.[5] On 29th April 1915, they experienced a heavy defeat at the Battle of Gasr Bu Hadi, when a presumed ally Ramadan al-Suwayhli, defeated an Italian column.[5]
The Italian defeat and engrossment with the war in Europe meant that Tripolitania and Cyrenaica were able to have political agency. Arab nationalism was trending, and after several attempts at regaining power in Tripolitania Al-Suwayhil was able to create the Tripolitanian Republic in 1918 with Ahmad Al-Murayyid of Tarhuna, Abd Al-Nabi Bilkhayr of Warfalla, Sulayman Al-Baruni.[5] Al-Suwayhil's advisor was also Abd al-Rahman Azzam Bey, an Egyptian nationalist, who later became the first secretary general of the Arab League.[5]The Tripolitarian Republic shortly failed after disagreements among rival factions and Italian pressures, It showed the first attempt at a republican government in the Arab world as well as the impact of resistance. [6]
The resistance ended with Umar Al-Mukhtar's capture on 11th September 1931, his trial ran personally by General Rodolfo Graziani.[5] Within five days it resulted in the public hanging of the star of Libyan Resistance, concluding the era of organised resistance.[5]
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- ^ Crispi, Francesco (1912–14). The memoirs of Francesco Crispi. Vol. 2. London : Hodder and Stoughton.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date format (link) - ^ a b McClure, William Kidston (1986). Italy in North Africa : an account of the Tripoli enterprise. London : Darf. ISBN 1850770921.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Abdullatif Ahmida, Ali (2005). Forgotten Voices : Power and Agency in Colonial and Postcolonial Libya. New York : Routledge. pp. 48–52. ISBN 9780415949866.
- ^ Grigoriadis, Theocharis N.; Kassem, Walied (June 2021). "The Regional Origins of the Libyan Conflict". Middle East Policy. 28 (2): 119–129. doi:10.1111/mepo.12560. ISSN 1061-1924.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Vandewalle, Dirk (2006-02-13). A History of Modern Libya (1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511986246. ISBN 978-0-521-61554-9.
- ^ a b c d e Wilcox, Vanda. "The Italian Empire and the Great War". academic.oup.com. pp. 99–120. doi:10.1093/oso/9780198822943.003.0006. Retrieved 2023-05-13.