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Itza' language
[edit]| Itza' | |
|---|---|
| Itza, Itzaj | |
| Native to | Guatemala |
| Region | Petén |
| Ethnicity | Itza people |
Native speakers | (12 cited 1986)[1] |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | itz |
| Glottolog | itza1241 |
Itza' (also known as Itza or Itzaj) is a language belonging to the Yucatecan branch of Mayan languages spoken by the Itza people near lake Peten Itza, in modern day Guatemala. The language is endangered, with only 12 fluent speakers and 60 nonfluent speakers[2].
Itza' was the language of administration across much of the Yucatan Peninsula prior to 1697, when the Itza people controlled the last significant Mayan nation in Mesoamerica.[3] During this time, the Itza people resettled their ancestral home in the Peten region.[3] The subjugation of the Itza capital by the Spanish forced Itza people to flee or live amongst Spaniards, such as in San Jose, Guatemala, where the only modern speakers of the language live.
The modern Itza people are the last of the Lowland Maya to be able to directly trace their heritage back to the pre-Columbian era.[4] The Itza' language reflects this history in its nomenclature for the natural world: Itza' words referring to agriculture and agricultural practices remain unchanged since first being recorded.[5] Additionally, Itza' posses a rich vocabulary for crops and animals that encodes specific information about different varietals and individuals of the species.[5]
Geographic Distribution
[edit]Itza' is spoken on the north shore of lake Peten Itza in San Jose Peten, Peten Department, Guatemala. Among the ethnic population of 1800, there are only 12 fluent speakers and 60 non-fluent, Spanish-Itza' bilingual speakers.[2]
Phonology
[edit]Consonants
[edit]The following chart shows the consonant phonemes of Itza:[6]
| Bilabial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Voiceless | Implosive | Voiceless | Ejective | Voiceless | Ejective | Voiceless | Ejective | Voiceless | Ejective | Voiceless | |
| Stops | p | ɓ | t | tʼ | k | kʼ | ʔ | ||||
| Affricates | t͡s | t͡sʼ | t͡ʃ | t͡ʃʼ | |||||||
| Fricatives | s | ʃ | x | h | |||||||
| Nasals | m | n | |||||||||
| Liquids | l | ||||||||||
| Glides | j | w | |||||||||
Additionally, the phonemes /d, g, f, v, r, ɲ/ have been adopted from Spanish, and are present only in loanwords in modern Itza.[6]
Vowels
[edit]The following chart shows the vowel phonemes of Itza:[6]
| Front | Central | Back | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Short | Long | Short | Long | Short | Long | |
| High | i | iː | u | uː | ||
| Mid | e | eː | ɐ | o | oː | |
| Low | a | aː | ||||
Grammar
[edit]Nouns
[edit]Possession is marked with the same ergative particle as is used in verbal constructions.[7] Possession constructions are marked differently based on whether the possession is inherent or non-inherent. Body parts, family members, and personal property are marked as being possessed differently than are parts of a whole. Additional possession constructions exist and are used generally where the possessor is inanimate.[7]
All nouns in Itza' possess grammatical gender. The masculine and feminine genders are overtly marked by a prefix, while the neutral gender is unmarked.[8] Gender is not marked on all nouns: typically, proper nouns and professions have marked gender, while other categories do not. The gender markers of Itza' also play the role of rigid designators: specific individuals across all possible worlds will have overtly marked gender, while references to classes of objects will not.[8]
Verbs
[edit]Itza' is an ergative-absolutive language demonstrating split ergativity. Ergative person markers indicate intransitive subjects in the imperfective aspect and all transitive subjects, while absolutive person markers indicate intransitive subjects in the perfective aspect and in dependent clauses and all objects.[3]
Itza' employs the Irrealis grammatical mood to mark the future tense: the mood is coupled with a temporal adjective to from a future construction. The past tense is similarly constructed by using the Perfect tense and temporal adjectives. Similarities in the Irrealis and Perfect constructions may suggest that the Itza' consider the past and future to be similar, which reflects the Itza' worldview that time is cyclical.[9]
Sentence Structure
[edit]Itza' has VOS word order, although VSO is also common and all word orders are possible.[3] Topicalization is marked by the addition of a suffix and the movement of the topicalized word to the sentence initial position.[3]
Generally, modifiers precede the words they modify: adjectives, numerals, determiners, and negation all follow this pattern. Possesives, demonstratives, and relative clauses all typically follow the words they modify; adjectives can also occur in this position.[3]
Vocabulary
[edit]Itza' posses a rich vocabulary of agriculture and taxonomy. Itza has specific words to encode various properties of different varietals and individuals within a species. Plants and animals of different size, color, and taste are referred to with different terms.[5] Additionally, agricultural terms in Itza' have been virtually uninfluenced by contact with the Spanish, allowing some insight into the commonplace vocabulary of pre-contact Itza.[5]
Discourse
[edit]Discourse in Itza' is marked by its heavy use of repetition and linguistic parallelism. Words and linguistic constructions are often repeated throughout a sentence order to draw emphasis to what is being spoken.[3] The resulting sentences are thus composed of several, complete phrases such as in the sentence:
| in-ten | k-im-b'el | im-b'en-es-eech |
|---|---|---|
| EMP-1SG.lPR | INC-l SG.A-go | 1SG.A-go-CAUS-2SG.B |
"I am going to take you,"
| in-ten | k-im-b'el | inw-a'l-e(j) | tech |
|---|---|---|---|
| EMP-1SG.lPR | INC-1SG.A-go | 1SG.A-say-DTs | 2SG.lOPR |
"I am going to tell you."
The repetition of the pronoun in-ten and the verb k-im-b'el, as well as the near-repetition of the pronoun eech/tech, is typical of Itza' discourse.[3] Such literary style is comparable to parataxis in English, a style of discourse where simple, coordinating sentences are preferred over long, subordinating sentences.
Discourse, both common and mythological, often employs framing particles-- particles placed before and after a phrase in order to frame the phrase within the discourse as a whole. These particles convey the spatial and temporal relationships between new and old pieces of information in the discourse, creating larger discourse units.[10]
References
[edit]Charles Andrew Hofling, F. L. (1994). Yucatec Maya Imperatives and Other Manipulative Language. International Journal of American Linguistics, 272-294.[11]
Hofling, C. (2006). A Sketch of the History of the Verbal Complex in Yukatekan Mayan Languages. International Journal of American Linguistics, 367-396.[12]
Hofling, C. A. (1987). Discourse Framing in Itzá Maya Narrative. Anthropological Linguistics, 478-488.[10]
Hofling, C. A. (1990). Possession and Ergativity in Itzá Maya. International Journal of American Linguistics, 542-560.[7]
Hofling, C. A. (1991). Itza Maya Texts With a Grammatical Overview. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.[13]
Hofling, C. A. (1998). Irrealis and Perfect in Itzaj Maya. Anthropological Linguistics, 214-227.[9]
Hofling, C. A. (2000). Itzaj Maya Grammar. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.[3]
Hofling, C. A. (2012). A Comparison of Narrative Style in Mopan and Itzaj Mayan. In M. D. Kerry M. Hull, Parallel Worlds (pp. 401-448). Boulder: University Press of Colorado.[14]
Lois, X. (1994). Gender Markers as "Rigid Determiners" of the Itzaj Maya World. International Journal of American Linguistics, 224-282.[8]
Søren Wichmann, C. H. (2003). Contact among Some Mayan Languages: Inferences from Loanwords. Anthropological Linguistics, 57-93.[15]
Additional references below.
[edit]- ^ Itza' at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
- ^ a b Lewis, M. Paul (2009). "Itza'". Ethnologue. SIL International. Retrieved March 9, 2017.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Hofling, Charles Andrew (2000). Itzaj Maya Grammar. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press. ISBN 0-87480-666-6.
- ^ Atran, Medin, Ross, Lynch, Coley, Ucan Ek, Vapnarsky, Scott, Douglas, Norbert, Elizabeth, John, Edilberto, Valentina (1999). "Folkecology and Commons Management in the Maya Lowlands". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 96 (13): 7598–7603. doi:10.1073/pnas.96.13.7598. JSTOR 48105. PMC 22132. PMID 10377461 – via JSTOR.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b c d Atran, Chase, Fedick, Knapp, McKillop, Marcus, Schwartz., Webb, Scott, Arlen F., Scott L., Gregory, Heather, Joyce, Norman B., Malcolm C. (1993). "Itza Maya Tropical Agro-Forestry". Current Anthropology. 34: 633–700. doi:10.1086/204212. JSTOR 2744279. S2CID 147519787 – via JSTOR.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b c Hofling, Charles Andrew (1991). "Itzá Maya Texts, with a Grammatical Overview" (PDF). Fundacion Para el Avance de los Estudios Mesamericanos.
- ^ a b c Hofling, Charles A. (1990). "Possession and Ergativity in Itzá Maya". International Journal of American Linguistics. 56 (4): 542–560. doi:10.1086/466174. JSTOR 1265229. S2CID 144152977 – via JSTOR.
- ^ a b c Lois, Ximena (1998). "Gender Markers as "Rigid Determiners" of the Itzaj Maya World". International Journal of American Linguistics. 64 (3): 224–282. doi:10.1086/466358. JSTOR 1265685. S2CID 144347125 – via JSTOR.
- ^ a b Hofling, Charles Andrew (1998). "Irrealis and Perfect in Itzaj Maya". Anthropological Linguistics. 40 (2): 214–227. JSTOR 30028624 – via JSTOR.
- ^ a b Hofling, Charles A. (1987). "Discourse Framing in Itzá Maya Narrative". Anthropological Linguistics. 29 (4): 478–488. JSTOR 30028117 – via JSTOR.
- ^ Hofling, Ojeda, Charles Andrew, Fernando L. (1994). "Yucatec Maya Imperatives and Other Manipulative Language". International Journal of American Linguistics. 60 (3): 272–294. doi:10.1086/466234. JSTOR 1265897. S2CID 144520825 – via JSTOR.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Hofling, Charles Andrew (2006). "A Sketch of the History of the Verbal Complex in Yukatekan Mayan Languages". International Journal of American Linguistics. 72 (3): 367–396. doi:10.1086/509490. JSTOR 10.1086/509490. S2CID 145600395 – via JSTOR.
- ^ Hofling, Charles A. (1991). Itza Maya Texts. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press. ISBN 9780874803594.
- ^ Hull, Carrasco, Kerry M., Michael D. (2012). Parallel Worlds. Boulder: University of Colorado Press. pp. 401–448. ISBN 978-1-60732-179-8.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Wichmann, Brown, Søren, Cecil H. (2003). "Contact among Some Mayan Languages: Inferences from Loanwords". Anthropological Linguistics. 45 (1): 57–93. JSTOR 30028873 – via JSTOR.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)