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Aftermath

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"Jerusalem Captured", in The Times, 11 Dec 1917
Jewish Legion soldiers at the Western Wall December 1917

On 11 December, two days after the official surrender and exactly six weeks after the fall of Beersheba, Allenby (commander of the EEF) made his formal entry into Jerusalem on foot through the Jaffa gate instead of by horse or vehicles to show his great respect for the holy place. The Australian 10th Light Horse Regiment, who had previously occupied Jerusalem on 9 December, provided a mounted guard of honour commanded by Captain Throssell VC.[1][2]

Among the mounted units to accompany Allenby on his formal entrance into Jerusalem were a New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade representative troop commanded by 2nd Lieutenant C.J. Harris, Canterbury Regiment.[3][4][5] The New Zealand troop was made up of one sergeant and 10 men from the Auckland Regiment, nine men from the Canterbury Regiment, and nine men from the Wellington Regiment, with three men from the Machine Gun Squadron and one from the Signal Troop – a total of one officer and 33 other ranks.[5]

At this time the 12th Light Horse Regiment was in the Judean Hills on the front line near Kuddis, where the disposition of the Ottoman defenders was static and quiet, but observant. From 12 December the regiment was working to extend a sangar and enjoyed fresh meat, bread, vegetables, and rum. On 17 December bivouac sheets and blankets arrived. The weather continued cold and showery, but the good rations and extra blankets and bivouac shelters lifted morale.[6]

Indian sentry of 58th Vaughan's Rifles guards the Dome of the Rock

The British Empire had received the Christmas present the Prime Minister had wanted to give them, along with the moral prestige of effecting a Christian control of Jerusalem. It was a huge blow to the Ottoman Empire, which had suffered the loss of yet another Muslim Holy Place (having already lost Mecca and Baghdad).[7]

First British guard at the Jaffa Gate

During the fighting advance to Jerusalem from Beersheba and Gaza, the total British Empire casualties were 18,000, with the Ottoman suffering 25,000 casualties. British casualties during the Battle of Jerusalem from 25 November to 10 December were 1,667. In the same period 1,800 Ottoman prisoners were taken.[8]

Eleven Ottoman infantry divisions had been forced to retire, suffering 28,443 casualties; some 12,000 prisoners were captured, 100 guns, and scores of machine guns were also captured. Now the Ottoman Army needed to deploy troops from other theatres to make up for these significant losses.[2] On 15 December the Ottoman 2nd Caucasian Cavalry Division arrived in Palestine and became the reserve of the XXII Corps before taking part in the counterattacks of 27 December. The 1st Infantry Division arrived from the Caucasus and moved to Nablus in reserve.[9] A significant consequence of the Ottoman Empire's firm focus on the Levant was that the British recapture of Baghdad and the British offensive in Mesopotamia became more viable and secure.[2]

Strategic decisions

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The camp of the 94th Heavy Battery on Mt Scopus after they helped capture Jerusalem

It is clear in a letter written to his wife on the day of his ceremonial entry into Jerusalem that Allenby was keeping a close eye on the evolving situation: "The Turks are driven 3 or 4 miles down the Jericho road, to the East; and some 6 or 8 Miles to the North. Today we occupied Bethany."[10]

Just before the capture of Jerusalem, the British War Office had been very worried about Allenby's extended advance and warned of a possible retirement back to Gaza and Beersheba if the war on the Western Front dictated the transfer of large numbers of troops from the Levant. This attitude changed immediately after Jerusalem was captured. The War Office then wanted to know how Allenby might exploit his success with the addition of a division from Mesopotamia.[11]

Yesterday, morning, I reconnoitred our line, N. and E. slight fighting was in progress; and a few prisoners were coming in – fine, fighting Turks; well set up and well fed ... Later, I went to the railway station; where we are trying to repair and reconstruct what the Turks have damaged. Then Bols and I went to Bethlehem ... .

Allenby letter to Lady Allenby 14 December 1917[12]

Allenby's great strategic successes from the end of October 1917 brought pressure from the British War Office to quickly finish the war in the Middle East. The War Cabinet instructed Robertson to telegraph Allenby on 18 December with a project based on alternative policies –

  • (a) To complete the conquest of the whole of Palestine between Dan and Beersheba and hold the country for the remainder of the war
  • (b) To continue the advance through Palestine and Syria to the vicinity of Aleppo so as to cause permanent interruption of railway communication with Mesopotamia.

Robertson requested that Allenby should send his "views as soon as possible as to the execution of these policies" and the length of time needed for the operations.[13]

Allenby replied on 20 December 1917:

  • (a) ... I calculate I might be able by June or July to place force of my present strength north of Nazareth–Haifa line, assuming enemy cannot oppose me with more than about 60,000 fighting strength and provided there are no special difficulties met with in railway construction.
  • (b) To advance further towards Aleppo would mean to move against Damascus and Beirut. On that front enemy is served by broad–gauge railway with good lateral communications and apparently ideal ground for defence. Broad–gauge railway would put him on level with me as regards numbers that could be maintained. I should require 16 or 18 divisions besides my mounted corps to ensure success against Damascus–Beirut line if strongly held, but this is probably more than my railway could support. My estimate is made on the supposition enemy will make use of his broad-gauge railway to its full capacity. I would point out that Aleppo is 350 miles distant and my single line of railway advances about half a mile a day. Railhead of my double line is at Bir el Mazar, but the doubling of railway has had to be stopped during my present advance. For my immediate plans see my telegram No. E.A. 598 14 December, and I think it advisable before advancing much further north to clear Turkish forces on Medina railway."[14]

Allenby had reported on 14 December that the rainy season would stop a renewal of operations for at least two months.[15]

Second attack across the Nahr el Auja – Battle of Jaffa

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Main article: Battle of Jaffa (1917)
Falls' Sketch Map 20 Passage of the Nahr el 'Auja

Allenby needed to establish a defensive line running from the Mediterranean Sea which could be held with reasonable security once his right flank was secured on the Dead Sea.[16] In order to consolidate a strong British Empire line, it was necessary to push the 3rd and 7th Infantry Divisions of the Ottoman Eighth Army back away from the Nahr el Auja 4 mi (6.4 km) north of Jaffa on the Mediterranean coast.[9] The first attempt was made on 24 to 25 November and this second engagement in the same area became officially designated by the British as a subsidiary battle during the Jerusalem Operations.[17][Note 1]

Three infantry divisions of the XXI Corps began moving their units into position on the coastal plain on 7 December. The 75th Division was on the right with the 54th (East Anglian) Division in the centre and the 52nd (Lowland) Division on the coast.[2][18] Infantry from the 162nd (East Midland) Brigade, relieved the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade in the front line on 11 December and the mounted riflemen, who had been heavily involved in the earlier attempt to capture the Nahr el Auja, moved back to bivouac near Ayun Kara.[19][Note 2]

Military operations resumed a fortnight after the surrender of Jerusalem with the final attack of this campaign.[18] But preparations were complicated by the sodden state of the low and swampy ground on the southern banks of the Nahr el Auja where the attack would be launched. And the river was swollen by rain which had fallen on 19 and 20 December. From Mulebbis to the sea the river is between 40–50 ft (12–15 m) wide and 10–12 ft (3.0–3.7 m) deep except for the ford at the mouth of the river known as Sheik Muanis. To the north of the river two prominent spurs run down to the river from a series of sandy ridges. These overlooked the damaged stone bridge at Khurbet Hadrah to the east and the village of Sheik Muannis, near Jerisheh to the west where a mill dam bridged the stream.[2][18] The Ottoman Eighth Army held strong commanding positions covering all the places used by the attackers in November. They held both spurs in addition to a post opposite the ford at the mouth of the Nahr el Auja. They also held a line extending east of Khurbet Hadrah which crossed to the south bank of the river to include Bald Hill and Mulebbis.[18]

All three infantry brigades of the 52nd (Lowland) Division managed to cross the River Auja on the night of 20–21 December. It is claimed that by morning they had secured the Ottoman defensive line, completely surprising the defenders who surrendered without firing a shot.[2][20] Temporary bridges were built so the infantry's artillery could cross the river. On 23 December the 52nd (Lowland) and 54th (East Anglian) Divisions moved up the coast a further 5 mi (8.0 km), while the left of the advance reached Arsuf 8 mi (13 km) north of Jaffa, capturing key Ottoman defensive positions. They were supported by guns on British warships.[2] Three hundred prisoners were captured and many Ottomans were killed with bayonets, while the British infantry suffered 100 casualties.[18][Note 3]

Defence of Jerusalem

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Officially recognised by the British as one of three battles which made up the "Jerusalem Operations", along with the Battle of Nebi Samwil and the subsidiary Battle of Jaffa, this engagement occurred a month after the Ottoman armies had launched their counterattacks; between 26 and 30 December 1917.[17] The XX Corps' infantry divisions, the 10th (Irish), the 60th (2/2nd London), and the 74th (Yeomanry) Divisions with support from infantry in the 53rd (Welsh) Division fought the Seventh Ottoman Army's III Corps' 24th, 26th and 53rd Divisions.[21]

Falls' Sketch Map 21: Defence of Jerusalem. Situation on 30 December 1917 at 1800
Allenby's troops march through Jaffa street.
Allenby's troops march through Jaffa street.

After the evacuation of Jerusalem by the Ottoman Seventh Army, the British XX Corps held a line which ran across the Jerusalem to Jericho and Jerusalem to Nablus roads 4 mi (6.4 km) north and east of Jerusalem. This line continued to the west through the hills to Beit Ur el Foka and Suffa.[2] Jerusalem was still within range of Ottoman artillery and with the opposing sides in such close proximity there was still the risk of counterattack. An offensive to push the Ottoman Army further northwards was planned for 24 December 1917, but was delayed due to bad weather.[2]

In a letter to the War Office, Allenby had written on 4 December of his desire to capture Bireh.[22] The plan now was for infantry from the 60th (2/2nd London) Division to advance north astride the Jerusalem to Nablus road with infantry from the 74th (Yeomanry) Division advancing eastwards from Beit Ur el Foka to converge on the Bireh-Ramalla ridge.[18]

Dead Ottoman soldiers at Tel el Ful in 1917

The British were prepared for battle when an Ottoman Army counterattack was launched at 01:30 on 27 December, which fell on the infantry from the 179th (2/4th London) Brigade, 60th (2/2nd London) Division, on the Nablus road.[23][20] The Ottoman force's initial objectives were a line of villages, including Nebi Samweil 1 mi (1.6 km) in front of their starting positions.[15] They were focused towards Tell el Ful, a hill east of the Nablus road about 3 mi (4.8 km) north of Jerusalem defended by the 60th (2/2nd London) Division. This Ottoman attack on Tell el Ful initially drove the British outposts back and captured several important places. The engagement continued for two days and was ultimately unsuccessful.[23]

Also during the morning of 27 December the British infantry from the 10th (Irish) and the 74th (Yeomanry) Divisions advanced about 4000 yds (4000 m) on a front of 6 mi (9.7 km).[2] And the next day Chetwode, commander of XX Corps, ordered infantry in the 10th (Irish) Division to attack towards Ramallah.[23]

The 60th (2/2nd London) Division took El Jib, Er Ram, and Rafat while the 53rd (Welsh) Division covered their left. The 74th (Yeomanry) Division captured Beitunia and the 10th (Irish) Division pushed to the east of Ain Arik. With Ottoman and German machine guns hard to locate amongst the boulders, the fighting was severe and stubborn.[18] On 29 December the 60th (2/2nd London) and 74th (Yeomanry) Divisions were joined by the 53rd (Welsh) Division.[23][15] A general British infantry advance on a 12 mi (19 km) front moved their front line 6 mi (9.7 km) on the right and 3 mi (4.8 km) on the left.[2] They pushed the whole line along the Nablus road to beyond Ramallah and Bireh by 30 December.[23][15] Final objectives were gained and the line along the whole front secured.[18]

The Ottoman Army lost over 1,000 casualties and 750 prisoners; the British infantry captured 24 machine guns and three automatic rifles.[2][Note 4]

Summation of campaign

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Jaffa to Jerusalem train climbing the Judean hills east of Lydda in 1947

The newly established, strategically strong defensive British line remained in place until mid September 1918 when the advance to Damascus and Aleppo, which ended the war in this theatre, took place. It stretched across from the Mediterranean coast in the west to north and east of Jerusalem. The line was extended during the middle of February 1918 when Jericho in the Jordan Valley was captured and the eastern end of the line was secured on the Dead Sea.[24]

The enormous territorial gains of the Palestine offensive contrasted with the British Expeditionary Force's offensive on the Western Front at Cambrai. Fought in Flanders from 20 to 30 November, it ended with heavy losses and no gains.[Note 5] The French army was still recovering from a serious mutiny, the Italians were defeated at the Battle of Caporetto, and Russia was out of the war following the Bolshevik Revolution. Allenby's advance by comparison made considerable territorial gains, helped secure Baghdad and the oilfields at Basra in Mesopotamia, encouraged the Arab Revolt, and inflicted irreplaceable losses on the Ottoman Army.[20]

The EEF's campaign from October to December 1917 resulted in a military defeat of a Central Power, which led to a substantial loss of enemy territory. In particular the fighting from 31 October to 7 November against the Ottoman Gaza–Sheria–Beersheba line resulted in the first defeat of entrenched, experienced and, up until then, successful Ottoman armies which were supported by artillery, machine guns and aircraft. During these attacks the Ottoman defenders were well established in trenches, redoubts and other fortifications, requiring a "Western Front"-style of battle, as the attackers were forced to approach over open ground.[15]

New York Herald front page on 11 December 1917 at the end of the Battle of Jerusalem. The mention of "673 years" is in reference to the continued rule of Muslims starting in 1244 under the Ayyubid dynasty.

Sporadic fighting continued in the hills surrounding Jerusalem.[25] On Christmas Day, Falkenhayn launched another counter assault, which was repulsed with heavy losses.[25] Some British newspapers and magazines, including The Irish News, claimed it as the end of the crusades.[26] A US newspaper also made reference to the Crusades, specifically the New York Herald (see picture), referring to the last time Jerusalem was under non-Muslim rule in 1244 AD when a Turkic army under Al-Salih Ayyub, defeated the Franks. The secular groups of the Italian politics characterized the victory as a crusade but giving secular and contemporary meanings to this term: The military episode was considered part of the Entente's crusade in the name of freedom and civilization against the cruelty of the German "Kultur", a widely spread image of the Great War propaganda based on the demonization of the enemy.[27] With different approaches, the Italian Catholic clergy and laity appeared generally reluctant to explicitly use of the ideology of crusade due to theological and doctrinal reasons: the conquest of Jerusalem was part of the just war conducted by the Entente, but it could not be considered like a step or the conclusion of a crusade.[28]

Britain would hold Jerusalem until the end of Mandatory Palestine in 1948.

Notes

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Footnotes

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  1. ^ Wavell noted that these operations 'hardly merit in size or importance the name "Battle of Jaffa"' given to them by the Battles Nomenclature Committee. [Wavell 1968, p. 169]
  2. ^ The Auckland Mounted Rifles Regiment was sent into Jaffa and came under orders of the 52nd (Lowland) Division. On 12 December the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment was sent to the village of Beit Dejan on the Jaffa to Ramleh road where it came under orders of an infantry division; the 54th (East Anglian) Division. By Christmas Day the Canterbury Mounted Rifle Regiment was back at Ashdod, while the Auckland and Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiments spent Christmas Day on the march to Ashdod, with Divisional Headquarters and other units of the Anzac Mounted Division following on Boxing Day.
  3. ^ The 52nd (Lowland) Division's campaigns in Egypt and Palestine had begun in 1916 at Romani ended at Arsuf. Shortly afterwards they ordered to France.[Wavell 1968, p. 170]
  4. ^ Allied casualties are unknown.
  5. ^ The Battle of Cambrai was reported in The Sydney Morning Herald under the headlines 'Deep Thrust' and 'The Great Drive' describing cavalry operations on 20 November. This engagement was celebrated as a victory with the ringing of the bells of St. Pauls in London and in Sydney where bells were to peal 'throughout the metropolitan area for five minutes.' Under the headlines 'Amazing Adventures', cavalry operations were described; under a headline of 'Thrilling Story', reporter Phillip Gibbs wrote up the story. But under the headline 'British Surprised' he had to acknowledge defeat after a German counterattack on 30 November. [Allenby to Lady Allenby 10 December 1917 and Hughes' note in Hughes 2004 pp. 104, 320] [The Sydney Morning Herald 24 November 1917 p. 3; 27 November p. 7; 28 November p. 11; 4 December 1917, p. 7]

Citations

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  1. ^ Hill 1978, p. 136.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Bruce, Anthony (2002). The Last Crusade: The Palestine Campaign in the First World War. London: John Murray. p. 155. ISBN 978-0-7195-5432-2.
  3. ^ Hill 1978, p. 134.
  4. ^ Bostock, Harry P. (1982). The Great Ride: The Diary of a Light Horse Brigade Scout, World War 1. Perth: Artlook Books. pp. 110, 113. OCLC 12024100.
  5. ^ a b Powles p. 170
  6. ^ War Diary 12th LHR December 1917
  7. ^ Wavell pp. 167–8
  8. ^ Wavell p. 167
  9. ^ a b Erickson, Edward J. (2001). Ordered to Die: A History of the Ottoman Army in the First World War: Forward by General Hüseyiln Kivrikoglu. No. 201 Contributions in Military Studies. Westport Connecticut: Greenwood Press. p. 173. OCLC 43481698.
  10. ^ Letter of General Allenby written 11 December 1917 in Hughes 2004, p. 105.
  11. ^ Correspondence on 7, 8 and 12 December 1917 in Hughes 2004, pp. 102–3, 103, 107, 114–6.
  12. ^ Hughes, Matthew, ed. (2004). Allenby in Palestine: The Middle East Correspondence of Field Marshal Viscount Allenby June 1917 – October 1919. Army Records Society. Vol. 22. Phoenix Mill, Thrupp, Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing. p. 111. ISBN 978-0-7509-3841-9.
  13. ^ Hughes, Matthew, ed. (2004). Allenby in Palestine: The Middle East Correspondence of Field Marshal Viscount Allenby June 1917 – October 1919. Army Records Society. Vol. 22. Phoenix Mill, Thrupp, Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-7509-3841-9.
  14. ^ Hughes, Matthew, ed. (2004). Allenby in Palestine: The Middle East Correspondence of Field Marshal Viscount Allenby June 1917 – October 1919. Army Records Society. Vol. 22. Phoenix Mill, Thrupp, Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing. pp. 115–6. ISBN 978-0-7509-3841-9.
  15. ^ a b c d e Grainger, John D. (2006). The Battle for Palestine, 1917. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. p. 193. ISBN 978-1-84383-263-8.
  16. ^ Allenby to Robertson 7 December 1917 in Hughes 2004, pp. 102–3.
  17. ^ a b The Official Names of the Battles and Other Engagements Fought by the Military Forces of the British Empire during the Great War, 1914–1919, and the third Afghan War, 1919: Report of the Battles Nomenclature Committee as Approved by The Army Council Presented to Parliament by Command of His Majesty. London: Government Printer. 1922. p. 32. OCLC 29078007.
  18. ^ a b c d e f g h Wavell, Field Marshal Earl (1968) [1933]. "The Palestine Campaigns". In Sheppard, Eric William (ed.). A Short History of the British Army (4th ed.). London: Constable & Co. p. 157. OCLC 35621223.
  19. ^ Powles, C. Guy; A. Wilkie (1922). The New Zealanders in Sinai and Palestine. Official History New Zealand's Effort in the Great War. Vol. III. Auckland: Whitcombe & Tombs. p. 155. OCLC 2959465.
  20. ^ a b c Woodward, David R. (2006). Hell in the Holy Land: World War I in the Middle East. Lexington: The University Press of Kentucky. p. 143. ISBN 978-0-8131-2383-7.
  21. ^ Falls Sketch Map 21
  22. ^ Hughes, Matthew, ed. (2004). Allenby in Palestine: The Middle East Correspondence of Field Marshal Viscount Allenby June 1917 – October 1919. Army Records Society. Vol. 22. Phoenix Mill, Thrupp, Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing. pp. 101–2. ISBN 978-0-7509-3841-9.
  23. ^ a b c d e Keogh, E. G.; Joan Graham (1955). Suez to Aleppo. Melbourne: Directorate of Military Training by Wilkie & Co. p. 177. OCLC 220029983.
  24. ^ Jerusalem Memorial 1928, p. 10.
  25. ^ a b Sondhaus, Lawrence (2011). World War One: The Global Revolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 386. ISBN 978-0-521-73626-8.
  26. ^ Walsh, Pat. "Ireland and the Last Crusade". David-morrison.org.uk. Retrieved 12 June 2011.
  27. ^ Cutolo, Francesco (2019). ""La IX crociata dell'Intesa". La politica e l'opinione pubblica laica italiana davanti alla presa di Gerusalemme (1917)". Studi storici (2): 325–360. doi:10.7375/93850. ISSN 0039-3037.
  28. ^ Cutolo, Francesco (2019). "L'ULTIMA CROCIATA? Il cattolicesimo italiano davanti alla presa di Gerusalemme (1917)". Rivista di storia del cristianesimo. 1: 171–201.

References

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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Battle of Jerusalem (1917).
  • Jerusalem Memorial Bearing the Names of Soldiers of the Forces of the British Empire Who Fell in Egypt and Palestine During the Great War and Have No Known Graves. Vol. Part 1 A-L. London: Imperial War Graves Commission. 1928. OCLC 221064848.
  • Blenkinsop, Layton John; Rainey, John Wakefield, eds. (1925). History of the Great War Based on Official Documents Veterinary Services. London: H.M. Stationers. OCLC 460717714.
  • Cutolo, Francesco (2019). ""La IX crociata dell'Intesa". La politica e l'opinione pubblica laica italiana davanti alla presa di Gerusalemme (1917)". Studi storici. 2: 325–360.
  • Cutolo, Francesco (2019). "L'ULTIMA CROCIATA? Il cattolicesimo italiano davanti alla presa di Gerusalemme (1917)". Rivista di storia del cristianesimo. 2: 171–201.
  • Erickson, Edward J. (2007). Gooch, John; Reid, Brian Holden (eds.). Ottoman Army Effectiveness in World War I: A Comparative Study. No. 26 Military History and Policy. Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-96456-9.
  • Gullett, H.S. (1941). The Australian Imperial Force in Sinai and Palestine, 1914–1918. Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918. Vol. VII. Canberra: Australian War Memorial. OCLC 220900153.
  • Hughes, Matthew, ed. (2004). Allenby in Palestine: The Middle East Correspondence of Field Marshal Viscount Allenby June 1917 – October 1919. Army Records Society. Vol. 22. Phoenix Mill, Thrupp, Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7509-3841-9.
  • Tucker, Spencer (1998). The Great War: 1914–18. London: UCL Press. ISBN 978-1-85728-391-4.
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