Jump to content

User:Mr.Z-man/withrefs

Coordinates: 31°N 35°E / 31°N 35°E / 31; 35
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This page is about the country. For other uses, see Mr.Z-man/withrefs (disambiguation).
State of Israel
מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל (in Hebrew)
Medīnat Yisrā'el
دَوْلَةُ إِسْرَائِيلَ (in Arabic)
Dawlat Isrā'īl
Anthem: Hatikvah
The Hope
Location of Israel
Location of Israel
CapitalJerusalem[a]
31°47′N 35°13′E / 31.783°N 35.217°E / 31.783; 35.217
Official languagesHebrew, Arabic[1]
Ethnic groups
75.4% Jewish, 20.6% Arab, 4% minority groups[2]
Demonym(s)Israeli
GovernmentParliamentary democracy[1]
• President
Shimon Peres
Benjamin Netanyahu
Reuven Rivlin
Dorit Beinisch
Independence 
from British Mandate of Palestine
May 14, 1948
Area
• Total 1
20770⁄22072 km2 (0.36333 sq mi) (151st)
• Water (%)
~2%
Population
• 2010 estimate
7,587,000[3] (96th)
• 1995 census
5,612,300[4]
• Density
365.3/km2 (946.1/sq mi) (35th)
GDP (PPP)2009 estimate
• Total
$206.430 billion[5] (49th)
• Per capita
$28,393[5] (29th)
GDP (nominal)2009 estimate
• Total
$194.825 billion[5] (40th)
• Per capita
$26,796[5] (28th)
Gini (2008)39.2[1]
Error: Invalid Gini value
HDI (2007)Increase 0.935[6]
Error: Invalid HDI value (27th)
CurrencyShekel (₪) (ILS or NIS)
Time zoneUTC+2 (IST)
• Summer (DST)
UTC+3 (IDT)
Drives onright
Calling code972
ISO 3166 codeIL
Internet TLD.il
  1. Excluding / Including the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem; see below.
  2. Includes all permanent residents in Israel proper, the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem. Also includes Israeli population in the West Bank. Excludes non-Israeli population in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.
שָׁלוֹם
This page contains Hebrew text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Hebrew letters.

Israel (Hebrew: יִשְׂרָאֵל, Yisrā'el; Arabic: إِسْرَائِيلُ, Isrā'īl), officially the State of Israel (Hebrew: מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל‎ⓘ, Medīnat Yisrā'el; Arabic: دَوْلَةُ إِسْرَائِيلَ, Dawlat Isrā'īl), is a country in Western Asia located on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It borders Lebanon in the north, Syria in the northeast, Jordan and the West Bank in the east, the Gaza Strip and Egypt on the southwest, and contains geographically diverse features within its relatively small area.[7][8] Israel is the world's only predominantly Jewish state,[9] with a population of 7.5 million people, of whom 5.7 million are Jewish.[10][11] Arab citizens of Israel form the country's second-largest ethnic group, which includes Muslims, Christians, Druze, and Samaritans.

The modern State of Israel has its historical and religious roots in the Biblical Land of Israel, also known as Zion, a concept central to Judaism since ancient times.[12][13][14] Political Zionism took shape in the late-19th century and the Balfour Declaration of 1917 formalized British policy preferring the establishment of a Jewish state. Following World War I, the League of Nations granted Great Britain the Mandate for Palestine and the responsibility for establishing "the Jewish national home" within it.[15]

In November 1947, the United Nations voted in favor of the partition of Palestine, proposing the creation of a Jewish state, an Arab state, and a UN-administered Jerusalem.[16] Partition was accepted by Zionist leaders but rejected by Arab leaders, leading to civil war. Israel declared independence on 14 May 1948 and neighboring Arab states attacked the next day. Since then, Israel has fought a series of wars with neighboring Arab states,[17] and in consequence occupies territories, including the West Bank and Gaza Strip, beyond those delineated in the 1949 Armistice Agreements. Israel has signed peace treaties with Egypt and Jordan, but efforts to resolve conflict with the Palestinians have so far only met with limited success and some of Israel's international borders remain in dispute.

Israel is a developed country and a representative democracy with a parliamentary system and universal suffrage.[18][19] The Prime Minister serves as head of government and the Knesset serves as Israel's legislative body. The economy, based on the nominal gross domestic product, was the 41st-largest in the world in 2008.[20] Israel ranks highest among Middle Eastern countries on the UN Human Development Index,[21] and has one of the highest life expectancies in the world.[22] Jerusalem is the country's capital, although it is not recognized internationally as such,[a] while Israel's main financial center is Tel Aviv. In 2010, Israel was accepted as member to the OECD.[23]

Etymology

[edit]

Over the past three thousand years, the name "Israel" has meant, in common and religious usage, both the Land of Israel and the entire Jewish nation.[24] According to the Bible, Jacob is renamed Israel after successfully wrestling with an angel of God.[25]

The earliest archaeological artifact to mention "Israel" (other than as a personal name) is the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt (dated the late 13th century BCE), which refers to a people of that name.[26] The modern country was named Medinat Yisrael, or the State of Israel, after other proposed names, including Eretz Israel ("the Land of Israel"), Zion, and Judea, were rejected.[27] In the early weeks of independence, the government chose the term "Israeli" to denote a citizen of Israel, with the formal announcement made by Minister of Foreign Affairs Moshe Sharett.[28]

History

[edit]
Main article: History of Israel

Antiquity

[edit]
Further information: History of ancient Israel and Judah
Ruins on the flat top of a sand colored mountain, surrounded by desert. Other mountains are visible in the background.
Masada in the Judean Desert, a national symbol

The Land of Israel, known in Hebrew as Eretz Yisrael, has been sacred to the Jewish people since Biblical times. According to the Torah, God promised the Land of Israel to the three Patriarchs of the Jewish people;[29][30] scholars have placed this period in the early 2nd millennium BCE.[31] Based on the Bible, around the 11th century BCE, the first of a series of Israelite kingdoms and states, the Kingdom of Israel, established rule over the region. Other Israelite kingdoms and states ruled intermittently for the following one thousand years, and are known from various extra-biblical sources.[32][33][34][35]

Between the time of the Israelite kingdoms and the 7th-century Muslim conquests, the Land of Israel fell under Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, Greek, Roman, Sassanian, and Byzantine rule.[36][37] Jewish presence in the region dwindled after the failure of the Bar Kokhba revolt against the Roman Empire in 132 CE.[38] Nevertheless, a continuous Jewish presence in the Land of Israel remained, with the Jewish religious center moving to the Galilee.[39][40] The Mishnah and part of the Talmud, central Jewish texts, were composed during the 2nd to 4th centuries CE in Tiberias and Jerusalem.[41] Following years of persecution at the hands of Byzantine rulers, the Jews revolted in 610 CE, allying themselves with the Persian invaders; capturing Jerusalem, the Persians and Jews killed many thousands of Christians and destroyed many churches.[42] recapturing Jerusalem in 628/9 CE, Byzantine Emperor Heraclius conducted a massacre and expulsion of the Jews.[43][44] The Land of Israel was then captured from the Byzantine Empire around 635 CE during the initial Muslim conquests.[45] Control of the region transferred between the Umayyads,[45] Abbasids,[45] and Crusaders over the next six centuries,[45] before falling in the hands of the Mamluk Sultanate, in 1260.[46] In 1516, the Land of Israel was conquered by the Ottoman Empire, which ruled the region until the 20th century.[46]

Zionism and the British Mandate

[edit]
Further information: [[:History of Zionism]]

Jews living in the Diaspora have long aspired to return to Zion and the Land of Israel,[47] though the amount of human effort that should be spent towards such aim is a matter of dispute in Judaism.[48][49] That hope and yearning was articulated in the Bible,[50] and is an important theme of the Jewish belief system.[48] After the Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492, some communities settled in Palestine.[51] During the 16th century, communities struck roots in the Four Holy Cities — Jerusalem, Tiberias, Hebron, and Safed — and in 1697, Rabbi Yehuda Hachasid led a group of 1500 Jews to Jerusalem.[52] In the second half of the 18th century, Eastern European opponents of Hasidism, known as the Perushim, settled in Palestine.[53][54][55]

A long-bearded man in his early forties leaning over a railing with a bridge in the background. Dressed in a black overcoat, he gazes blankly into the distance with his hands clasped.
Theodor Herzl, visionary of the Jewish State, in 1901

The first large wave of "modern" immigration, known as the First Aliyah, began in 1881, as Jews fled pogroms in Eastern Europe.[56] Although the Zionist movement already existed in theory, Austro-Hungarian journalist Theodor Herzl is credited with founding political Zionism,[57] a movement which sought to establish a Jewish state in the Land of Israel, by elevating the Jewish Question to the international plane.[58] In 1896, Herzl published Der Judenstaat (The State of the Jews), offering his vision of a future state; the following year he presided over the first World Zionist Congress.[59]

The Second Aliyah (1904–1914), began after the Kishinev pogrom; some 40,000 Jews settled in Palestine, but nearly half of them left.[56] Both the first and second waves of migrants were mainly Orthodox Jews,[60] but those in the Second Aliyah included socialist pioneers who established the kibbutz movement.[61] During World War I, British Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour issued what became known as the Balfour Declaration, which "view[ed] with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people". At the request of Edwin Samuel Montagu and Lord Curzon, a line was also inserted stating "it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country".[62]

The Jewish Legion, a group of battalions composed primarily of Zionist volunteers, assisted in the British conquest of Palestine. Arab opposition to the plan led to the 1920 Palestine riots and the formation of the Jewish organization known as the Haganah (meaning "The Defense" in Hebrew), from which the Irgun and Lehi paramilitary groups split off.[63] In 1922, the League of Nations granted the United Kingdom a mandate over Palestine under terms similar to the Balfour Declaration.[64] The population of the area at that time was predominantly Arab and Muslim, with Jews accounting for about 11% of the population.[65]

The Third (1919–1923) and Fourth Aliyahs (1924–1929) brought an additional 100,000 Jews to Palestine.[56] Finally, the rise of Nazism in the 1930s led to the Fifth Aliyah, with an influx of a quarter of a million Jews. This caused the Arab revolt of 1936–1939 and led the British to cap immigration with the White Paper of 1939. With countries around the world turning away Jewish refugees fleeing the Holocaust, a clandestine movement known as Aliyah Bet was organized to bring Jews to Palestine.[56] By the end of World War II, the Jewish population of Palestine had increased to 33% of the total population.[66]

Independence and first years

[edit]
Main article: 1948 Palestine war

After 1945, Britain found itself in fierce conflict with the Jewish community, as the Haganah joined Irgun and Lehi in armed struggle against British rule.[67] At the same time, thousands of Jewish refugees from Europe sought shelter in Palestine and were turned away or rounded up and placed in detention camps by the British. In 1947, the British government withdrew from the Mandate of Palestine, stating it was unable to arrive at a solution acceptable to both Arabs and Jews.[68] The newly created United Nations approved the Partition Plan for Palestine (United Nations General Assembly Resolution 181) on November 29, 1947, which sought to divide the country into two states—one Arab and one Jewish. Jerusalem was to be designated an international city—a corpus separatum—administered by the UN.[69]

The Jewish community accepted the plan,[70] but the Arab League and Arab Higher Committee rejected it.[71] On December 1, 1947, the Arab Higher Committee proclaimed a three-day strike, and Arab bands began attacking Jewish targets.[72] Jews were initially on the defensive as civil war broke out, but they gradually moved onto the offensive.[73] The Palestinian Arab economy collapsed and 250,000 Palestinian-Arabs fled or were expelled.[74]


On May 14, 1948, the day before the expiration of the British Mandate, the Jewish Agency proclaimed independence, naming the country Israel.[75] The following day, the armies of five Arab countries—Egypt, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon and Iraq—attacked Israel, launching the 1948 Arab-Israeli War;[76] Saudi Arabia sent a military contingent to operating under Egyptian command; Yemen declared war but did not take military action.[77] After a year of fighting, a ceasefire was declared and temporary borders, known as the Green Line, were established.[78] Jordan annexed what became known as the West Bank and East Jerusalem, and Egypt took control of the Gaza Strip. Meanwhile, Israel was accepted as a member of the United Nations by majority vote on May 11, 1949.[79] According to UN estimates, 711,000 Arabs, or about 80% of the initial Arab population of the area that became Israel, were expelled or fled the country during the conflict.[80] The fate of these Palestinian refugees remains a major point of contention in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.[81][82]

In the early years of the state, the Labor Zionist movement led by Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion dominated Israeli politics.[83][84] These years were marked by an influx of Holocaust survivors and Jews from Arab lands, many of whom faced persecution in their original countries.[85] Consequently, the population of Israel rose from 800,000 to two million between 1948 and 1958.[86] Most arrived as refugees with no possessions and were housed in temporary camps known as ma'abarot; by 1952, over 200,000 immigrants were living in these tent cities.[87] The need to solve the crisis led Ben-Gurion to sign a reparations agreement with West Germany that triggered mass protests by Jews angered at the idea of Israel accepting financial compensation from Germany for the Holocaust.[88]

In the 1950s, Israel was frequently attacked by Palestinian fedayeen, mainly from the Egyptian-occupied Gaza Strip.[89] In 1956, Israel joined a secret alliance with Great Britain and France aimed at regaining control of the Suez Canal, which the Egyptians had nationalized (see the Suez Crisis). Israel captured the Sinai Peninsula but was pressured to withdraw by the United States and the Soviet Union in return for guarantees of Israeli shipping rights in the Red Sea and the Canal.[90][91]

In the early 1960s, Israel captured Nazi war criminal Adolf Eichmann, an architect of the Final Solution, in Argentina and brought him to trial.[92] The trial had a major impact on public awareness of the Holocaust,[93] and Eichmann remains the only person ever to be executed by order of an Israeli court.[94]

Conflicts and peace treaties

[edit]
Further information: [[:Arab-Israeli conflict, Israeli-Palestinian conflict, and Positions on Jerusalem]]
See also: List of United Nations resolutions concerning Israel
Three middle-aged, suited men standing in the spotlight, seen from the side. The men are looking away from the camera, with serious expressions. In the background are several other people, out of focus.
Menachem Begin, Carter and Sadat at Camp David, at the signing of the peace treaty between Israel and Egypt

Arab nationalists led by Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser refused to recognize Israel or its right to exist, calling for its destruction.[17][95] By 1966, Israeli-Arab relations had deteriorated to the point of actual battles taking place between official Israeli and Arab forces.[96] In 1967, Egypt expelled UN peacekeepers, stationed in the Sinai Peninsula since 1957, and announced a partial blockade of Israel's access to the Red Sea.[97] Israel saw these actions as a casus belli for a pre-emptive strike that launched the Six-Day War, in which Israel achieved a decisive victory and captured the West Bank, Gaza Strip, Sinai Peninsula and Golan Heights.[98] Jerusalem's boundaries were enlarged, incorporating East Jerusalem, and the 1949 Green Line became the administrative boundary between Israel and the occupied territories.

The failure of the Arab states in the 1967 war led Arab non-state actors to have a more central role in the conflict. Most important among them is the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO), established in 1964, which initially committed itself to "armed struggle as the only way to liberate the homeland".[99][100] In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Palestinian groups launched a wave of attacks[101][102] against Israeli targets around the world,[103] including a massacre of Israeli athletes at the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich.

A dignified woman in her seventies sitting on a chair with her hands placed on her lap, staring intently to one side as if speaking to someone out of frame.
Prime Minister Golda Meir, who led Israel in the Yom Kippur War

On October 6, 1973, as Jews were observing Yom Kippur, the Egyptian and Syrian armies launched a surprise attack against Israel. The war ended on October 26 with Israel successfully repelling Egyptian and Syrian forces but suffering great losses.[104] An internal inquiry exonerated the government of responsibility for failures before and during the war, but public anger forced Prime Minister Golda Meir to resign.[105]

The 1977 Knesset elections marked a major turning point in Israeli political history as Menachem Begin's Likud party took control from the Labor Party.[106] Later that year, Egyptian President Anwar El Sadat made a trip to Israel and spoke before the Knesset in what was the first recognition of Israel by an Arab head of state.[107] In the two years that followed, Sadat and Menachem Begin signed the Camp David Accords and the Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty.[108] Israel withdrew from the Sinai Peninsula and agreed to enter negotiations over an autonomy for Palestinians in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.[109] Begin's government encouraged Israelis to settle in the West Bank, leading to friction with the Palestinians in that area.[110]

The Jerusalem Law, passed in 1980, reaffirmed Israel's annexation of Jerusalem and reignited international controversy over the status of the city. The position of the majority of UN member states is reflected in numerous resolutions declaring that actions taken by Israel to impose its laws, jurisdiction and administration on the whole of Jerusalem are illegal and have no validity.[111]

In 1982, Israel intervened in the Lebanese Civil War to destroy the bases from which the PLO launched attacks and missiles at northern Israel; that move developed into the First Lebanon War.[112] Israel withdrew from most of Lebanon in 1986, but maintained a borderland buffer zone until 2000. The First Intifada, a Palestinian uprising against Israeli rule,[113] broke out in 1987 with waves of violence occurring in the occupied territories. Over the following six years, more than a thousand people were killed in the ensuing violence, much of which was internal Palestinian violence.[114] During the 1991 Gulf War, the PLO and many Palestinians supported Saddam Hussein and Iraqi missile attacks against Israel.[115][116]

A stolid balding man in a dark suit on the left shakes the hand of a smiling man in traditional Arab headdress on the right. A taller, younger man stands with open arms in the center behind them.
Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat shake hands at the signing of the Oslo Accords, with Bill Clinton behind them, 1993

In 1992, Yitzhak Rabin became Prime Minister following an election in which his party promoted compromise with Israel's neighbors.[117][118] The following year, Shimon Peres and Mahmoud Abbas, on behalf of Israel and the PLO, signed the Oslo Accords, which gave the Palestinian National Authority the right to self-govern parts of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.[119] The PLO also recognized Israel's right to exist and pledged an end to terrorism.[120] In 1994, the Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace was signed, making Jordan the second Arab country to normalize relations with Israel.[121] Arab public support for the Accords was damaged by the continuation of Israeli settlements[122] and checkpoints, and the deterioration of economic conditions. Israeli public support for the Accords waned as Israel was struck by Palestinian suicide attacks. Finally, while leaving a peace rally in November 1995, Yitzhak Rabin was assassinated by a far-right-wing Jew who opposed the Accords.

At the end of the 1990s, Israel, under the leadership of Benjamin Netanyahu, withdrew from Hebron,[123] and signed the Wye River Memorandum, giving greater control to the Palestinian National Authority.[124] Ehud Barak, elected Prime Minister in 1999, began the new millennium by withdrawing forces from Southern Lebanon and conducting negotiations with Palestinian Authority Chairman Yasser Arafat and U.S. President Bill Clinton at the 2000 Camp David Summit. During the summit, Barak offered a plan for the establishment of a Palestinian state, but Yasser Arafat rejected it.[125] After the collapse of the talks and a controversial visit by Likud leader Ariel Sharon to the Temple Mount, the Second Intifada began. Sharon became prime minister in a 2001 special election. During his tenure, Sharon carried out his plan to unilaterally withdraw from the Gaza Strip and also spearheaded the construction of the Israeli West Bank barrier.[126]

In July 2006, a Hezbollah artillery assault on Israel's northern border communities and a cross-border abduction of two Israeli soldiers sparked the month-long Second Lebanon War.[127][128] Two years later, in May 2008, Israel confirmed it had been discussing a peace treaty with Syria for a year, with Turkey as a go-between.[129] However, at the end of the year, Israel entered another conflict as a ceasefire between Hamas and Israel collapsed. The Gaza War lasted weeks and ended after Israel announced a unilateral ceasefire.[130][131] Hamas announced its own ceasefire, with its own conditions of complete withdrawal and opening of border crossings. Despite neither the rocket launchings nor Israeli retaliatory strikes having completely stopped, the fragile ceasefire remained in order.[132]

Geography and climate

[edit]
Main article: Geography of Israel
Jerusalem Mountains

Israel is located at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea, bounded by Lebanon to the north, Syria to the northeast, Jordan to the east, and Egypt to the southwest. The sovereign territory of Israel, excluding all territories captured by Israel during the 1967 Six-Day War, is approximately 20,770 square kilometers (8,019 sq mi) in area, of which two percent is water.[1] The total area under Israeli law, including East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights, is 22,072 square kilometers (8,522 sq mi).[133] The total area under Israeli control, including the military-controlled and partially Palestinian-governed territory of the West Bank, is 27,799 square kilometers (10,733 sq mi).[134]

Despite its small size, Israel is home to a variety of geographic features, from the Negev desert in the south to the mountain ranges of the Galilee and Carmel in the north. The Israeli Coastal Plain on the shores of the Mediterranean is home to seventy percent of the nation's population. East of the central highlands lies the Jordan Rift Valley, which forms a small part of the 6,500-kilometer (4,039 mi) Great Rift Valley. The Jordan River runs along the Jordan Rift Valley, from Mount Hermon through the Hulah Valley and the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea, the lowest point on the surface of the Earth.[135] Further south is the Arabah, ending with the Gulf of Eilat, part of the Red Sea.

The Negev Desert

Unique to Israel and the Sinai Peninsula are makhteshim, or erosion cirques.[136] The largest makhtesh in the world is Ramon Crater in the Negev,[137] which measures 40 by 8 kilometers (25 by 5 mi).[138] A report on the environmental status of the Mediterranean basin states that Israel has the largest number of plant species per square meter of all the countries in the basin.[139]

Temperatures in Israel vary widely, especially during the winter. The more mountainous regions can be windy, cold, and sometimes snowy; Jerusalem usually receives at least one snowfall each year.[140] Meanwhile, coastal cities, such as Tel Aviv and Haifa, have a typical Mediterranean climate with cool, rainy winters and long, hot summers. The highest temperature in the continent of Asia (53.7 °C (128.7 °F)*) was recorded in 1942 at Tirat Zvi kibbutz in the northern Jordan river valley.[141] From May to September, rain in Israel is rare.[142][143] With scarce water resources, Israel has developed various water-saving technologies, including drip irrigation.[144] Israelis also take advantage of the considerable sunlight available for solar energy, making Israel the leading nation in solar energy use per capita.[145]

Government and politics

[edit]
Main article: Politics of Israel
A short box-like building topped with Israeli flags and supported by modern concrete columns
The Knesset building, home of the Israeli parliament
Wikinews has related news:

Israel operates under a parliamentary system as a democratic republic with universal suffrage.[1] The President of Israel is the head of state, but his duties are limited and largely ceremonial.[146] A Parliament Member supported by a majority in parliament becomes the Prime Minister, usually the chairman of the largest party. The Prime Minister is the head of government and head of the Cabinet.[146][147] Israel is governed by a 120-member parliament, known as the Knesset. Membership of the Knesset is based on proportional representation of political parties,[148] with a 2% electoral threshold, which commonly results in coalition governments.

Parliamentary elections are scheduled every four years, but unstable coalitions or a no-confidence vote by the Knesset often dissolves governments earlier. "The average life span of an Israeli government is 22 months. The peace process, the role of religion in the state, and political scandals have caused coalitions to break apart or produced early elections."[149] The Basic Laws of Israel function as an unwritten constitution. In 2003, the Knesset began to draft an official constitution based on these laws.[1][150]

A low-rise T-shaped building with small, slit-like windows, with a small park in front, and a hilly, inhabited terrain in the background
Israeli Supreme Court, Givat Ram, Jerusalem

Israel has a three-tier court system. At the lowest level are magistrate courts, situated in most cities across the country. Above them are district courts, serving both as appellate courts and courts of first instance; they are situated in five of Israel's six districts. The third and highest tier in Israel is the Supreme Court, seated in Jerusalem. It serves a dual role as the highest court of appeals and the High Court of Justice. In the latter role, the Supreme Court rules as a court of first instance, allowing individuals, both citizens and non-citizens, to petition against decisions of state authorities.[151][152] Although Israel supports the goals of the International Criminal Court, it has not ratified the Rome Statute, citing concerns about the ability of the court to remain free from political impartiality.[153]

Israel's legal system combines English common law, civil law, and Jewish law.[1] It is based on the principle of stare decisis (precedent) and is an adversarial system, where the parties in the suit bring evidence before the court. Court cases are decided by professional judges rather than juries.[151] Marriage and divorce are under the jurisdiction of the religious courts: Jewish, Muslim, Druze, and Christian. A committee of Knesset members, Supreme Court justices, and Israeli Bar members carries out the election of judges.[154] Israel's Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty seeks to defend human rights and liberties in Israel. Israel is the only country in the region ranked "Free" by Freedom House based on the level of civil liberties and political rights; the "Israeli Occupied Territories/Palestinian Authority" was ranked "Not Free."[155][156] However, in 2009 Reporters Without Borders rated Israel 93 out of 175 countries in terms of freedom of the press, lagging behind countries such as Kuwait (60th), Lebanon (61st) and United Arab Emirates (86th).[157][158] Groups such as Amnesty International[159] and Human Rights Watch[160] have often disapproved of Israel's human rights record in regards to the Arab-Israeli conflict. Israel's civil liberties also allow for self-criticism, from groups such as B'Tselem, an Israeli human rights organization.[161]

Administrative districts

[edit]
Main article: Districts of Israel
Districts of Israel: (1) Northern, (2) Haifa, (3) Center, (4) Tel Aviv, (5) Jerusalem, (6) Southern

The State of Israel is divided into six main administrative districts, known as mehozot (מחוזות; singular: mahoz) – Center, Haifa, Jerusalem, North, Southern, and Tel Aviv Districts. Districts are further divided into fifteen sub-districts known as nafot (נפות; singular: nafa), which are themselves partitioned into fifty natural regions.[162]

For statistical purposes, the country is divided into three metropolitan areas: Tel Aviv metropolitan area (population 3,206,400), Haifa metropolitan area (population 1,021,000), and Beer Sheva metropolitan area (population 559,700).[163] Israel's largest municipality, both in population and area,[164] is Jerusalem with 773,800 residents in an area of 126 square kilometers (49 sq mi) (in 2009). Israeli government statistics on Jerusalem include the population and area of East Jerusalem, which is widely recognized as part of the Palestinian territories under Israeli occupation.[165] Tel Aviv, Haifa, and Rishon LeZion rank as Israel's next most populous cities, with populations of 393,900, 265,600, and 227,600 respectively.[164]

Occupied territories

[edit]
Main article: Israeli-occupied territories

In 1967, as a result of the Six-Day War, Israel gained control of the West Bank, East Jerusalem, the Gaza strip and the Golan Heights. Israel also took control of the Sinai Peninsula, but returned it to Egypt as part of the 1979 Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty.

Map of Israel showing the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and the Golan Heights

Following Israel's capture of these territories, settlements consisting of Israeli citizens were established within each of them. Israel has applied civilian law to the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem, incorporating them into its territory and offering their inhabitants permanent residency status and the possibility to become full citizen if they asked it. In contrast, the West Bank has remained under military occupation, and it and the Gaza Strip are seen by the Palestinians and most of the international community as the site of a future Palestinian state.[166][167] The UN Security Council has declared the incorporation of the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem to be "null and void" and continues to view the territories as occupied.[168][169]

The status of East Jerusalem in any future peace settlement has at times been a difficult hurdle in negotiations between Israeli governments and representatives of the Palestinians. Most negotiations relating to the territories have been on the basis of United Nations Security Council Resolution 242, which calls on Israel to withdraw from occupied territories in return for normalization of relations with Arab states, a principle known as "Land for peace".[170][171][172]

The West Bank was annexed by Jordan in 1948, following the Arab rejection of the UN decision to create two states in Palestine. Only Britain recognized this annexation and Jordan has since ceded its claim to the territory to the PLO. The West Bank was occupied by Israel in 1967. The population are mainly Arab Palestinians, including refugees of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War.[173] From their occupation in 1967 until 1993, the Palestinians living in these territories were under Israeli military administration. Since the Israel-PLO letters of recognition, most of the Palestinian population and cities have been under the internal jurisdiction of the Palestinian Authority, and only partial Israeli military control, although Israel has on several occasions redeployed its troops and reinstated full military administration during periods of unrest. In response to increasing attacks as part of the Second Intifada, the Israeli government started to construct the Israeli West Bank barrier,[174] which is partially built within the West Bank.[175]

The Gaza strip was occupied by Egypt from 1948 to 1967 and then by Israel from 1967 to 2005. In 2005, as part of Israel's unilateral disengagement plan, Israel removed all of its residents and forces from the territory. However, Israel still controls Gaza's airspace and sea access and has on occasion sent troops into the area.[176] Gaza has a border with Egypt and an agreement between Israel, the EU, the PA and Egypt governed how border crossing would take place (it was monitored by European observers),[177] However the election of a Hamas government has led to problems in implementing it resulting in the border crossing being closed much of the time.[178] Internal control of Gaza is in the hands of the Hamas government.

Foreign relations

[edit]
Main article: Foreign relations of Israel

Israel maintains diplomatic relations with 161 countries and has 94 diplomatic missions around the world.[179] Only three members of the Arab League have normalized relations with Israel; Egypt and Jordan signed peace treaties in 1979 and 1994, respectively, and Mauritania opted for full diplomatic relations with Israel in 1999. Two other members of the Arab League, Morocco and Tunisia, which had some diplomatic relations with Israel, severed them at the start of the Second Intifada in 2000.[180] Since 2003, ties with Morocco have been improved, and Israel's foreign minister has visited the country.[181]

As a result of the 2009 Gaza War, Mauritania, Qatar, Bolivia, and Venezuela suspended political and economical ties with Israel.[182][183] Under Israeli law, Lebanon, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, and Yemen are enemy countries[184] and Israeli citizens may not visit them without permission from the Ministry of the Interior.[185] Since 1995, Israel has been a member of the Mediterranean Dialogue, which fosters cooperation between seven countries in the Mediterranean Basin and the members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization.[186]

Shimon Peres, current President of Israel, greeted by U.S. President Barack Obama at the White House

Foreign relations with United States, Turkey, Germany, the United Kingdom and India are among Israel's strongest. The United States was the first country to recognize the State of Israel, followed by the Soviet Union. The United States may regard Israel as its primary ally in the Middle East, based on "common democratic values, religious affinities, and security interests".[187] Their bilateral relations are multidimensional and the United States is the principal proponent of the Arab-Israeli peace process. U.S. and Israeli views differ on some issues, such as the Golan Heights, Jerusalem, and settlements.[188]

India established full diplomatic ties with Israel in 1992 and has fostered a strong military and cultural partnership with the country since then.[189] One study revealed that India was the most pro-Israel nation in the world followed by the United States.[190]

Germany's strong ties with Israel include cooperation on scientific and educational endeavors and the two states remain strong economic and military partners.[191][192] The UK has kept full diplomatic relations with Israel since its formation having had two visits from heads of state in 2007. Relations between the two countries were also made stronger by former prime minister Tony Blair's efforts for a two state resolution. The UK is seen as having a "natural" relationship with Israel on account of the British Mandate of Palestine.[193] Iran had diplomatic relations with Israel under the Pahlavi dynasty[194] but withdrew its recognition of Israel during the Iranian Revolution.[195]

Although Turkey and Israel did not establish full diplomatic relations until 1991,[196] Turkey has cooperated with the State since its recognition of Israel in 1949. Turkey's ties to the other Muslim-majority nations in the region have at times resulted in pressure from Arab states to temper its relationship with Israel.[197] Relations between Turkey and Israel took a downturn, however, after the former's condemnation of Israel after the 2009 Gaza War.[182]

In Africa, Ethiopia is Israel's main and closest ally in the continent due to common political, religious and security interests.[198] Many towns in Ethiopia are named after biblical Israel settlements, including Ethiopia's third largest city of Nazret Adama. Israel also provides expertise to Ethiopia on irrigation projects. Thousands of Ethiopian Jews (Beta Israel) live in Israel.

Defense

[edit]
Israeli Air Force F-15I Ra'am.
Main articles: Israel Defense Forces and Israeli security forces

The Israel Defense Forces consists of the Israeli Army, Israeli Air Force and Israeli Navy. It was founded during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War by consolidating paramilitary organizations—chiefly the Haganah—that preceded the establishment of the state.[199] The IDF also draws upon the resources of the Military Intelligence Directorate (Aman), which works with the Mossad and Shabak.[200] The Israel Defense Forces have been involved in several major wars and border conflicts in its short history, making it one of the most battle-trained armed forces in the world.[201][202]

A main battle tank on a hill. A soldier is in the open hatch above the turret.
Israeli Defense Force Merkava IV

The majority of Israelis are drafted into the military at the age of eighteen. Men serve three years and women serve two years.[203] Following compulsory service, Israeli men join the reserve forces and do several weeks of reserve duty every year until their forties. Most women are exempt from reserve duty. Arab citizens of Israel (except the Druze) and those engaged in full-time religious studies are exempt from military service, although the exemption of yeshiva students has been a source of contention in Israeli society for many years.[204][205] An alternative for those who receive exemptions on various grounds is Sherut Leumi, or national service, which involves a program of service in hospitals, schools and other social welfare frameworks.[206] As a result of its conscription program, the IDF maintains approximately 168,000 active troops and an additional 408,000 reservists.[207]

The nation's military relies heavily on high-tech weapons systems designed and manufactured in Israel as well as some foreign imports. The United States is a particularly notable foreign contributor; they are expected to provide the country with US$30 billion in military aid between 2008 and 2017.[208] The Israeli- and U.S.-designed Arrow missile is one of the world's only operational anti-ballistic missile systems.[209] Since the Yom Kippur War, Israel has developed a network of reconnaissance satellites.[210] The success of the Ofeq program has made Israel one of seven countries capable of launching such satellites.[211] The country has also developed its own main battle tank, the Merkava. Since its establishment, Israel has spent a significant portion of its gross domestic product on defense. In 1984, for example, the country spent 24%[212] of its GDP on defense. Today, that figure has dropped to 7.3%.[1]

Israel is widely believed to possess nuclear weapons.[213] However, Israel has not signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and maintains a policy of deliberate ambiguity toward its nuclear capabilities.

After the Gulf War in 1991, when Israel was attacked by Iraqi Scud missiles, a law was passed requiring all apartments and homes in Israel to have a mamad, a reinforced security room impermeable to chemical and biological substances.[214]

Economy

[edit]
Main article: Economy of Israel
See also: Tourism in Israel


Israel is considered one of the most advanced countries in Southwest Asia in economic and industrial development. In 2010, it was accepted as member to the OECD.[23][215] The country is ranked 3rd in the region on the World Bank's Ease of Doing Business Index[216] as well as in the World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Report.[217] It has the second-largest number of startup companies in the world (after the United States)[218] and the largest number of NASDAQ-listed companies outside North America.[219]

A small white jet aircraft, with two jet engines on its tail, on the tarmac
An IAI Galaxy G200 transcontinental business jet, designed and produced by Israel Aircraft Industries.[220]

In 2009, Israel had the 49th-highest gross domestic product and 29nd-highest gross domestic product per capita (at purchasing power parity) at $206.4 billion and $28,393, respectively.[5] The New Israeli Shekel is one of 17 freely convertible currencies according to the CLS list.[221][222]

Despite limited natural resources, intensive development of the agricultural and industrial sectors over the past decades has made Israel largely self-sufficient in food production, apart from grains and beef. Other major imports to Israel, totaling $47.8 billion in 2006, include fossil fuels, raw materials, and military equipment.[1] Leading exports include fruits, vegetables, pharmaceuticals, software, chemicals, military technology, and diamonds; in 2006, Israeli exports reached $42.86 billion.[1]

Israel is a global leader in water conservation and geothermal energy,[223] and its development of cutting-edge technologies in software, communications and the life sciences have evoked comparisons with Silicon Valley.[224][225] Intel[226] and Microsoft[227] built their first overseas research and development centers in Israel, and other high-tech multi-national corporations, such as IBM, Cisco Systems, and Motorola, have opened facilities in the country. In July 2007, U.S. billionaire Warren Buffett's Berkshire Hathaway bought an Israeli company Iscar, its first non-U.S. acquisition, for $4 billion.[228] Since the 1970s, Israel has received economic and military aid from the United States, whose loans account for the bulk of Israel's external debt.[1]

Tourism

[edit]

Tourism, especially religious tourism, is an important industry in Israel, with the country's temperate climate, beaches, archaeological and historical sites, and unique geography also drawing tourists. Israel's security problems have taken their toll on the industry, but the number of incoming tourists is on the rebound.[229] In 2008, over 3 million tourists visited Israel.[230]

Transportation

[edit]
Main article: Transport in Israel
A large hall, with tall round columns; dozens of people standing or walking, around an entrance in the left wall. The area around the entrance is partitioned for the most part from the rest of the hall.
Arrivals terminal at Ben Gurion International Airport

Israel has 18,096 kilometers (11,244 mi) of paved roads,[231] and 2.4 million motor vehicles.[232] The number of motor vehicles per 1,000 persons was 324, relatively low with respect to developed countries.[232] Israel has 5,715 buses on scheduled routes,[233] operated by several carriers, the largest of which is Egged, serving most of the country. Railways stretch across 949 kilometers (590 mi) and are operated solely by government-owner Israel Railways[234] (All figures are for 2008). Following major investments beginning in the early-to-mid 1990s, the number of train passengers per year has grown from 2.5 million in 1990, to 35 million in 2008; railways are also used to transport 6.8 million tons of cargo, per year.[234]

Israel is served by two international airports, Ben Gurion International Airport, the country's main hub for international air travel near Tel Aviv-Yafo, Ovda Airport in the south, as well as several small domestic airports.[235] Airports served 11.1 million passengers (entries and departures) in 2008, 11 million passing through Ben Gurion airport.[236][237]

On the Mediterranean coast, Haifa Port is the country's oldest and largest port, while Ashdod Port is one of the few deep water ports in the world built on the open sea.[235] In addition to these, the smaller Port of Eilat is situated on the Red Sea, and is used mainly for trading with Far East countries.[235]

Science, technology and education

[edit]
Main articles: Education in Israel, Science and technology in Israel, and List of universities and colleges in Israel
See also: List of universities and colleges in Israel
A night-time image of a gray windowless tower, with an egg-shaped windowed observation deck on top. Next to it is a low building, grass, and many trees and bushes.
The particle accelerator at the Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot

Israel has the highest school life expectancy in Southwest Asia, and is tied with Japan for second-highest school life expectancy on the Asian continent (after South Korea).[238] Israel similarly has the highest literacy rate in Southwest Asia, according to the United Nations.[239] The State Education Law, passed in 1953, established five types of schools: state secular, state religious, ultra orthodox, communal settlement schools, and Arab schools. The public secular is the largest school group, and is attended by the majority of Jewish and non-Arab pupils in Israel. Most Arabs send their children to schools where Arabic is the language of instruction.[240]

Education is compulsory in Israel for children between the ages of three and eighteen.[241][242] Schooling is divided into three tiers – primary school (grades 1–6), middle school (grades 7–9), and high school (grades 10–12) – culminating with Bagrut matriculation exams. Proficiency in core subjects such as mathematics, Bible, Hebrew language, Hebrew and general literature, English, history, and civics is necessary to receive a Bagrut certificate.[243] In Arab, Christian and Druze schools, the exam on Biblical studies is replaced by an exam in Islam, Christianity or Druze heritage.[244] In 2003, over half of all Israeli twelfth graders earned a matriculation certificate.[245]

Israel's eight public universities are subsidized by the state.[243][246] The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel's oldest university, houses the Jewish National and University Library, the world's largest repository of books on Jewish subjects.[247] The Hebrew University is consistently ranked among world's 100 top universities[248][249] by the prestigious ARWU academic ranking. Other major universities in the country include the Technion, the Weizmann Institute of Science, Tel Aviv University (TAU), Bar-Ilan University, the University of Haifa, and Ben-Gurion University of the Negev. Israel's seven research universities (excluding the Open University) are consistently ranked among top 500 in the world.[250] Israel ranks third in the world in the number of academic degrees per capita (20 percent of the population).[251][252] Israel has produced five Nobel Prize-winning scientists since 2002[253] and publishes among the most scientific papers per capita of any country in the world.[254][255]

A horizontal parabolic dish, with a triangular structure on its top. Around it is a flat sandy area, with desert in the background. It's a sunny day, with a few white clouds in the blue skies.
The world's largest solar parabolic dish at the Ben-Gurion National Solar Energy Center.[256]

Israel leads world in stem cell research papers per capita since 2000[257] In addition, Israeli universities are among 100 top world universities in mathematics (TAU, Hebrew University and Technion), physics (TAU, Hebrew University and Weizmann Institute of Science), chemistry (TAU, Hebrew University and Technion), computer science (TAU, Hebrew University, Weizmann Institute of Science, BIU and Technion) and economics (TAU and Hebrew University).[258]

In 2009 Israel was ranked 2nd among 20 top countries in space sciences by Thomson Reuters agency.[259] Since 1988 Israel Aerospace Industries have indigenously designed and built at least 13 commercial, research and spy satellites.[260] Most were launched to orbit from Israeli air force base "Palmachim" by the Shavit space launch vehicle. Some of Israel's satellites are ranked among the world's most advanced space systems.[261] In 2003, Ilan Ramon became Israel's first astronaut, serving as payload specialist of STS-107, the fatal mission of the Space Shuttle Columbia.

Israel has embraced solar energy, its engineers are on the cutting edge of solar energy technology[262] and its solar companies work on projects around the world.[263][264] Over 90% of Israeli homes use solar energy for hot water, the highest per capita in the world.[265][266] According to government figures, the country saves 8% of its electricity consumption per year because of its solar energy use in heating.[267] The high annual incident solar irradiance at its geographic latitude creates ideal conditions for what is an internationally renowned solar research and development industry in the Negev Desert.[262][263][264]

Demographics

[edit]
Main articles: Demographics of Israel and Languages of Israel
A road sign with three lines of black text on white background, each with the name "Be'er Sheva" in a different language (from the top) – Hebrew, Arabic, and English.
Trilingual road signs

As of 2010, Israel's population is 7.5 million.[3] Israel has two official languages, Hebrew and Arabic.[1] Hebrew is the primary language of the state and is spoken by the majority of the population, and Arabic is spoken by the Arab minority. As of 2008, Arab citizens of Israel comprise just over 20% of the country's total population.[268]

Many Israelis communicate reasonably well in English, as many television programs are in English and English is taught from the early grades in elementary school. As a country of immigrants, many languages can be heard on the streets. Due to mass immigration from the former Soviet Union and Ethiopia (some 120,000 Ethiopian Jews live in Israel)[269] Russian and Amharic are widely spoken.[270] Between 1990 and 1994, the Russian immigration increased Israel's population by twelve percent.[271] Out of more than one million Russian-speaking immigrants in Israel,[272] about 300,000 are considered gentile by the Orthodox rabbinate, because, under the Orthodox interpretation, only children to Jewish mothers are considered Jews.[273][274] Over the last decade, large numbers of migrant workers from Romania, Thailand, China, Africa and South America have settled in Israel. Exact figures are unknown as many of them are living in the country illegally,[275] but estimates run in the region of 200,000.[276] Over 16,000 African asylum seekers have entered Israel in recent years.[277] The main language amongst deaf Israelis is Israeli Sign Language (ISL).[278]

Retention of Israel's population since 1948 is about even or greater, when compared to other countries with mass immigration.[279] Emigration from Israel (yerida) to other countries, primarily the United States and Canada, is described by demographers as modest,[280] but is often cited by Israeli government ministries as a major threat to Israel's future.[281][282]

As of 2009 over 300,000 Israeli citizens live in West Bank settlements[283] such as Ma'ale Adumim and Ariel, and communities that predated the establishment of the State but were re-established after the Six-Day War, in cities such as Hebron and Gush Etzion. 18,000 Israelis live in the Golan Heights.[284] In 2006, there were 250,000 Jews living in East Jerusalem.[285] The total number of Israeli settlers is over 500,000 (6.5% of the Israeli population). Approximately 7,800 Israelis lived in settlements in the Gaza Strip until they were evacuated by the government as part of its 2005 disengagement plan.[286]

Israel was established as a homeland for the Jewish people and is often referred to as the Jewish state. The country's Law of Return grants all Jews and those of Jewish lineage the right to Israeli citizenship.[287] Just over three quarters, or 75.5%, of the population are Jews from a diversity of Jewish backgrounds. Approximately 68% of Israeli Jews are Israeli-born, 22% are immigrants from Europe and the Americas, and 10% are immigrants from Asia and Africa (including the Arab World).[288][289] Jews who immigrated to Israel from Arab lands and their descendants constitute about 40% of Jewish Israelis.[290]

Religion

[edit]
Main article: Religion in Israel
A large open area with hundreds of people, bounded by old stone walls. Beyond it are houses and a few trees, to the right is a mosque with large golden dome, and to the left – a minaret
The Western Wall and the Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem

The religious affiliation of Israeli Jews varies widely: 55% say they are "traditional," while 20% consider themselves "secular Jews," 17% define themselves as "Religious Zionists"; the final 8% define themselves as "Haredi Jews."[291]

Making up 16% of the population, Muslims constitute Israel's largest religious minority. About 2% of the population are Christian and 1.5% are Druze.[292]

A light colored stone church with a triangular roof, with two towers flanking the entrance, in the background. In the foreground are low stone walls, a tree and some bushes
Church of Transfiguration, Mount Tabor

The Christian population includes both Arab Christians and Messianic Jews.[293] Members of many other religious groups, including Buddhists and Hindus, maintain a presence in Israel, albeit in small numbers.[294]

The city of Jerusalem is of special importance to Jews, Muslims and Christians as it is the home of sites that are pivotal to their religious beliefs, such as the Israeli-controlled Old City that incorporates the Western Wall and the Temple Mount, the Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.[295] Other landmarks of religious importance are located in the West Bank, among them Joseph's tomb in Shechem, the birthplace of Jesus and Rachel's Tomb in Bethlehem, and the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron.

The administrative center of the Bahá'í Faith and the Shrine of the Báb are located at the Bahá'í World Centre in Haifa and the leader of the faith is buried in Acre. Apart from maintenance staff, there is no Bahá'í community in Israel, although it is a destination for pilgrimages. Bahá'í staff in Israel do not teach their faith to Israelis following strict policy.[296][297]

Culture

[edit]
Main article: Culture of Israel
An outdoor book fair at dusk. Vendors are in booths along both sides of a walkway crowded with people.
Hebrew Book Week in Jerusalem

Israel's diverse culture stems from the diversity of the population: Jews from around the world have brought their cultural and religious traditions with them, creating a melting pot of Jewish customs and beliefs.[298] Israel is the only country in the world where life revolves around the Hebrew calendar. Work and school holidays are determined by the Jewish holidays, and the official day of rest is Saturday, the Jewish Sabbath.[299] Israel's substantial Arab minority has also left its imprint on Israeli culture in such spheres as architecture,[300] music,[301] and cuisine.[302]

Several dozen musicians in formal dress, holding their instruments, behind a conductor
Israel Philharmonic Orchestra conducted by Zubin Mehta

Israeli literature is primarily poetry and prose written in Hebrew, as part of the renaissance of Hebrew as a spoken language since the mid-19th century, although a small body of literature is published in other languages, such as English. By law, two copies of all printed matter published in Israel must be deposited in the Jewish National and University Library at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. In 2001, the law was amended to include audio and video recordings, and other non-print media.[303] In 2006, 85 percent of the 8,000 books transferred to the library were in Hebrew.[304] The Hebrew Book Week (He: שבוע הספר‎) is held each June and features book fairs, public readings, and appearances by Israeli authors around the country. During the week, Israel's top literary award, the Sapir Prize, is presented. In 1966, Shmuel Yosef Agnon shared the Nobel Prize in Literature with German Jewish author Nelly Sachs.[305]

A gray semi-hemispherical structure with a protruding top, standing in the middle of a fountain, with several jets of water falling on the structure
Shrine of the Book, repository of the Dead Sea Scrolls in Jerusalem

Israeli music contains musical influences from all over the world; Sephardic music, Hasidic melodies, Belly dancing music, Greek music, jazz, and pop rock are all part of the music scene.[306][307] The nation's canonical folk songs, known as "Songs of the Land of Israel," deal with the experiences of the pioneers in building the Jewish homeland.[308] Among Israel's world-renowned[309][310] orchestras is the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra, which has been in operation for over seventy years and today performs more than two hundred concerts each year.[311] Israel has also produced many musicians of note, some achieving international stardom. Itzhak Perlman, Pinchas Zukerman and Ofra Haza are among the internationally acclaimed musicians born in Israel. Israel has participated in the Eurovision Song Contest nearly every year since 1973, winning the competition three times and hosting it twice.[312] Eilat has hosted its own international music festival, the Red Sea Jazz Festival, every summer since 1987.[313]

Cinema of Israel: nine Israeli films have been final nominees for Best Foreign Language Film at the Academy Awards since the establishment of Israel. The 2009 movie Ajami was the third consecutive nomination of an Israeli film.[314]

Continuing the strong theatrical traditions of the Yiddish theater in Eastern Europe, Israel maintains a vibrant theatre scene. Founded in 1918, Habima Theatre in Tel Aviv is Israel's oldest repertory theater company and national theater.[315]

The Israel Museum in Jerusalem is one of Israel's most important cultural institutions[316] and houses the Dead Sea scrolls,[317] along with an extensive collection of Judaica and European art.[316] Israel's national Holocaust museum, Yad Vashem, houses the world's largest archive of Holocaust-related information.[318] Beth Hatefutsoth (the Diaspora Museum), on the campus of Tel Aviv University, is an interactive museum devoted to the history of Jewish communities around the world.[319] Apart from the major museums in large cities, there are high-quality artspaces in many towns and kibbutzim. Mishkan Le'Omanut on Kibbutz Ein Harod Meuhad is the largest art museum in the north of the country.

Sports

[edit]
An all-seated roofless stadium with a football pitch.
Ramat Gan Stadium, Israel's largest stadium
Main article: Sports in Israel

Sports and physical fitness have not always been paramount in Jewish culture. Athletic prowess, which was prized by the ancient Greeks, was looked down upon as an unwelcome intrusion of Hellenistic values. Maimonides, who was both a rabbi and a physician, emphasized the importance of regular exercise in preventing illness on the authority of Hippocrates and Galen.[320] This approach received a boost in the 19th century from the physical culture campaign of Max Nordau, and in the early 20th century when the Chief Rabbi of Palestine, Abraham Isaac Kook, declared that "the body serves the soul, and only a healthy body can ensure a healthy soul".[321] The Maccabiah Games, an Olympic-style event for Jewish athletes and Israeli athletes, was inaugurated in the 1930s, and has been held every four years since then. In 1964 Israel hosted and won the Asian Nations Cup; in 1970 the Israel national football team managed to qualify to the FIFA World Cup, which is still considered the biggest achievement of Israeli football.

A young man surfing on a windsurf board in the sea, with another surfer in the background
Windsurfer Gal Fridman, winner of Israel's first Olympic gold medal

Israel was excluded from the 1978 Asian Games due to Arab pressure on the organizers. The exclusion left Israel in limbo and it ceased competing in Asian competitions.[322] In 1994, UEFA agreed to admit Israel and all Israeli sporting organizations now compete in Europe.

The most popular spectator sports in Israel are association football and basketball.[323] Ligat ha'Al is the country's premier soccer league, and Ligat HaAl is the premier basketball league.[324] Maccabi Haifa, Maccabi Tel Aviv, Hapoel Tel Aviv and Beitar Jerusalem are the largest sports clubs. Maccabi Tel Aviv and Maccabi Haifa have competed in the UEFA Champions League and Hapoel Tel Aviv reached the final quarter in the UEFA Cup. Maccabi Tel Aviv B.C. has won the European championship in basketball five times.[325] Israeli tennis champion Shahar Pe'er ranked 19th in the world after competing in Dubai.[326]

Beersheba has become a national chess center; thanks to Soviet immigration, it is home to the largest number of chess grandmasters of any city in the world.[327] The city hosted the World Team Chess Championship in 2005, and chess is taught in the city's kindergartens.[328] In 2008, the Israeli chess team won the silver medal at the Chess Olympiad.[329] Israeli grandmaster Boris Gelfand is the current Chess World Cup holder.[330]

To date, Israel has won seven Olympic medals since its first win in 1992, including a gold medal in windsurfing at the 2004 Summer Olympics.[331] Israel has won over 100 gold medals in the Paralympic Games and is ranked about 15th in the all-time medal count. The 1968 Summer Paralympics were hosted by Israel.[332]

See also

[edit]

References and notes

[edit]
a.   ^ The Jerusalem Law states that "Jerusalem, complete and united, is the capital of Israel" and the city serves as the seat of the government, home to the President's residence, government offices, supreme court, and parliament. United Nations Security Council Resolution 478 (Aug. 20, 1980; 14–0, U.S. abstaining) declared the Jerusalem Law "null and void" and called on member states to withdraw their diplomatic missions from Jerusalem. The United Nations and all member nations refuse to accept the Jerusalem Law (see Kellerman 1993, p. 140) and maintain their embassies in other cities such as Tel Aviv, Ramat Gan, and Herzliya (see the CIA Factbook and Map of Israel). The U.S. Congress subsequently adopted the Jerusalem Embassy Act, which said that the U.S. embassy should be relocated to Jerusalem and that it should be recognized as the capital of Israel. The Palestinian Authority sees East Jerusalem as the capital of a future Palestinian state. The city's final status awaits future negotiations between Israel and the Palestinian Authority (see "Negotiating Jerusalem", University of Maryland). See Positions on Jerusalem for more information.
  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "Israel", The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, 19 June 2007, retrieved 20 July 2007
  2. ^ Haaretz Service (16 September 2009), "Israel on eve of Rosh Hoshanah: Population hits 7.5m, 75.4% Jewish", Haaretz, retrieved 26 December 2009
  3. ^ a b Israel at 62: Population of 7,587,000, Ynet, 18 April 2010
  4. ^ Localities and population, by municipal status and district (PDF), Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics, 2009, retrieved 19 April 2010
  5. ^ a b c d e Israel, International Monetary Fund, retrieved 21 April 2010
  6. ^ Human Development Report 2009. Human development index trends: Table G (PDF), The United Nations, retrieved 10 October 2009
  7. ^ "Israel", CIA Factbook, CIA, retrieved 13 April 2010
  8. ^ Skolnik 2007, pp. 132–232
  9. ^ "Israel", Country Report, Freedom House, 2007, retrieved 15 July 2007
  10. ^ "Israel closes decade with population of 7.5 million", Haaretz, 31 December 2009, retrieved 31 December 2009
  11. ^ Time Series-DataBank, Central Bureau of Statistics, retrieved 20 February 2009
  12. ^ Ben-Sasson, Hayim (1985), A History of the Jewish People, Harvard University Press, p. 1232, ISBN 978-0674397316
  13. ^ Schwartz, Howard (2004), Tree of Souls: The Mythology of Judaism, Oxford University Press, p. 399, ISBN 978-0195086799 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  14. ^ See, for example, Genesis 12 and 13. Etz Hayim: Torah and Commentary. Jewish Publication Society, 2001.
  15. ^ "The Palestine Mandate", The Avalon Project, 24 July 1922, retrieved 8 April 2010
  16. ^ "United Nations General Assembly Resolution 181", The Avalon Project, Yale University, 29 November 1947, retrieved 21 August 2007
  17. ^ a b Gilbert, Martín (2005), The Routledge Atlas of the Arab-Israeli Conflict, Routledge, p. 200, ISBN 978-0415359009
  18. ^ Rummel 1997, p. 257. "A current list of liberal democracies includes: Andorra, Argentina, ... , Cyprus, ... , Israel, ..."
  19. ^ Global Survey 2006: Middle East Progress Amid Global Gains in Freedom, Freedom House, 19 December 2005, retrieved 1 July 2007
  20. ^ Gross domestic product 2008 (PDF), The World Bank, 7 October 2009, retrieved 18 February 2010 Note: this links to the most up-to-date table of GDP and will therefore eventually cease to connect to the table for the year mentioned.
  21. ^ Human Development Report 2007/2008 (PDF), United Nations Development Programme, retrieved 25 June 2009
  22. ^ WHO: Life expectancy in Israel among highest in the world Haaretz, May, 2009
  23. ^ a b Wrobel, Sharon (10 May 2010), OECD accepts Israel as member, Jerusalem Post, retrieved 10 May 2007
  24. ^ Levine, Robert A. (11 July 2000), "See Israel as a Jewish Nation-State, More or Less Democratic", The New York Times, ISSN 0294-8052, retrieved 29 July 2008
  25. ^ From the King James Version of the Bible: "And he said, Thy name shall be called no more Jacob, but Israel: for as a prince hast thou power with God and with men, and hast prevailed." (Genesis, 32:28). See also Hosea 12:5.
  26. ^ Barton & Bowden 2004, p. 126. "The Merneptah Stele... is arguably the oldest evidence outside the Bible for the existence of Israel as early as the 13th century BCE."
  27. ^ Popular Opinion, The Palestine Post, 7 December 1947, p. 1
  28. ^ "On the Move", Time, 31 May 1948, retrieved 6 August 2007
  29. ^ From the King James Version of the Bible: "And the Lord thy God will bring thee into the land which thy fathers possessed, and thou shalt possess it; and he will do thee good, and multiply thee above thy fathers." (Deuteronomy, 30:5)
  30. ^ From the King James Version of the Bible: "But if ye turn unto me, and keep my commandments, and do them; though there were of you cast out unto the uttermost part of the heaven, yet will I gather them from thence, and will bring them unto the place that I have chosen to set my name there." (Nehemiah, 1:9)
  31. ^ "Walking the Bible Timeline", Walking the Bible, Public Broadcast Television, retrieved 29 September 2007
  32. ^ Friedland & Hecht 2000, p. 8. "For a thousand years Jerusalem was the seat of Jewish sovereignty, the household site of kings, the location of its legislative councils and courts."
  33. ^ Ben-Sasson, Hayim (1985), A History of the Jewish People, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0674397316
  34. ^ Matthews, Victor H. (2002), A Brief History of Ancient Israel, Westminster John Knox Press, p. 192, ISBN 978-0664224363
  35. ^ Miller, J. Maxwell (1986), A History of Ancient Israel and Judah, Westminster John Knox Press, p. 523, ISBN 978-0664212629 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  36. ^ Ben-Sasson, Hayim (1985), A History of the Jewish People, Harvard University Press, p. 1232, ISBN 978-0674397316
  37. ^ Scheindlin, Raymond P. (2000), A Short History of the Jewish People: From Legendary Times to Modern Statehood, Oxford University Press, p. 288, ISBN 978-0195139419
  38. ^ Oppenheimer, A'haron and Oppenheimer, Nili. Between Rome and Babylon: Studies in Jewish Leadership and Society. Mohr Siebeck, 2005, p. 2.
  39. ^ Cohn-Sherbok, Dan (1996), Atlas of Jewish History, Routledge, p. 58, ISBN 978-0415088008
  40. ^ "Palestine: History", The Online Encyclopedia of the Roman Provinces, The University of South Dakota, 22 February 2007, retrieved 13 March 2009
  41. ^ Morçöl 2006, p. 304
  42. ^ Runciman, Steven (3 December 1987), A History of the Crusades: Volume 1, The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, Cambridge University Press, p. 10, ISBN 0-521-34770-X, On 5 May, with the help of Jews within the the Persians forced their way into the city. There followed scenes of' utter horror. With their churches and houses in flames around them, the Christians were indiscriminately massacred, some by the Persian soldiery and many more by the Jews. Sixty thousand were said to have perished and thirty-five thousand more were sold into slavery.
  43. ^ Ben-Sasson, Hayim (1985), A History of the Jewish People, Harvard University Press, pp. 359–363, ISBN 978-0674397316
  44. ^ Reinink, G.J. (2002), The Reign of Heraclius (610-641): Crisis and Confrontation, Peeters Publishers, p. 109, ISBN 978-9042912281 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  45. ^ a b c d Gil, Moshe (1997), A History of Palestine, 634-1099, Cambridge University Press, p. 994, ISBN 978-0521599849
  46. ^ a b Kramer, Gudrun (2008), A History of Palestine: From the Ottoman Conquest to the Founding of the State of Israel, Princeton University Press, p. 376, ISBN 978-0691118970
  47. ^ Rosenzweig, p. 1 "Zionism, the urge of the Jewish people to return to Palestine, is almost as ancient as the Jewish diaspora itself. Some Talmudic statements... Almost a millennium later, the poet and philosopher Yehuda Halevi... In the 19th century..."
  48. ^ a b Geoffrey Wigoder, G.G. (ed.), "Return to Zion", The New Encyclopedia of Judaism (via Answers.Com), The Jerusalem Publishing House, retrieved 8 March 2010 {{citation}}: |author= has generic name (help)
  49. ^ An invention called 'the Jewish people' – Haaretz – Israel News, Ha'aretz, retrieved 9 March 2010
  50. ^ From the King James Version of the Bible: "the Lord your God will bring you back from captivity ... and gather you again from all the peoples ... and will bring you into the land which your fathers possessed and you shall possess it" (Deut. 30:1–5).
  51. ^ Gilbert 2005, p. 2 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFGilbert2005 (help). "Jews sought a new homeland here after their expulsions from Spain (1492)..."
  52. ^ Eisen, Yosef (2004), Miraculous journey: a complete history of the Jewish people from creation to the present, Targum Press, p. 700, ISBN 1-56871-323-1
  53. ^ Morgenstern, Arie (2006), Hastening redemption: Messianism and the resettlement of the land of Israel, USA: Oxford University Press, p. 304, ISBN 978-0195305784
  54. ^ Jewish and Non-Jewish Population of Palestine-Israel (1517–2004), Jewish Virtual Library, retrieved 29 March 2010
  55. ^ Barnai, Jacob (1992), The Jews in Palestine in the Eighteenth Century: Under the Patronage of the Istanbul committee of Officials for Palestine, University Alabama Press, p. 320, ISBN 978-0817305727
  56. ^ a b c d "Immigration", Jewish Virtual Library, The American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise, retrieved 12 July 2007 The source provides information on the First, Second, Third, Fourth and Fifth Aliyot in their respective articles. The White Paper leading to Aliyah Bet is discussed [1].
  57. ^ Kornberg 1993 "How did Theodor Herzl, an assimilated German nationalist in the 1880s, suddenly in the 1890s become the founder of Zionism?"
  58. ^ Herzl 1946, p. 11
  59. ^ Chapter One: The Heralders of Zionism, Jewish Agency for Israel, retrieved 12 July 2007
  60. ^ Stein 2003, p. 88. "As with the First Aliyah, most Second Aliyah migrants were non-Zionist orthodox Jews..."
  61. ^ Romano 2003, p. 30
  62. ^ Macintyre, Donald (26 May 2005), "The birth of modern Israel: A scrap of paper that changed history", The Independent, London, retrieved 7 January 2009
  63. ^ Scharfstein 1996, p. 269. "During the First and Second Aliyot, there were many Arab attacks against Jewish settlements... In 1920, Hashomer was disbanded and Haganah ("The Defense") was established."
  64. ^ "League of Nations: The Mandate for Palestine, July 24, 1922", Modern History Sourcebook, Fordham University, 24 July 1922, retrieved 27 August 2007
  65. ^ J. V. W. Shaw , "A Survey of Palestine, Vol 1: Prepared in December 1945 and January 1946 for the Information of the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry", Reprinted 1991 by The Institute for Palestine Studies, Washington, D.C., page 148
  66. ^ The Population of Palestine Prior to 1948, MidEastWeb, retrieved 12 July 2007
  67. ^ Fraser 2004, p. 27
  68. ^ "Background Paper No. 47 (ST/DPI/SER.A/47)" (Document). United Nations. 20 April 1949. {{cite document}}: Unknown parameter |accessdate= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |url= ignored (help)
  69. ^ Best 2003, pp. 118–9
  70. ^ History: Foreign Domination, Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1 October 2006, retrieved 6 July 2007
  71. ^ Bregman 2002, p. 40–1
  72. ^ Gelber, Yoav (2006), Palestine 1948, Brighton: Sussex Academic Press, p. 17, ISBN 978-1902210674
  73. ^ Tal, David (2003), War in Palestine, 1948: Israeli and Arab Strategy and Diplomacy, Routledge, p. 471, ISBN 978-0714652757
  74. ^ Morris, Benny (2008), 1948: A History of the First Arab-Israeli War, New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0300151121
  75. ^ Clifford, Clark, "Counsel to the President: A Memoir", 1991, P 20.
  76. ^ "Part 3: Partition, War and Independence", The Mideast: A Century of Conflict, National Public Radio, 2 October 2002, retrieved 13 July 2007
  77. ^ Rabinovich, Itamar (2007), Israel in the Middle East: Documents and Readings on Society, Politics, and Foreign Relations, Pre-1948 to the Present, Brandeis, p. 74, ISBN 978-0874519624 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  78. ^ Karsh, Efraim (2002), The Arab-Israeli Conflict: The Palestine War 1948, Osprey Publishing, ISBN 978-1841763729
  79. ^ "Two Hundred and Seventh Plenary Meeting" (Document). The United Nations. 11 May 1949. {{cite document}}: Unknown parameter |accessdate= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |url= ignored (help)
  80. ^ "General Progress Report and Supplementary Report of the United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine, Covering the Period from December 11, 1949 to October 23, 1950" (Document). The United Nations Conciliation Commission. 23 October 1950. {{cite document}}: Unknown parameter |accessdate= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |url= ignored (help) (U.N. General Assembly Official Records, Fifth Session, Supplement No. 18, Document A/1367/Rev. 1)
  81. ^ Van Evera, Stephen, "Nature of the Flashpoint" (PDF), Center for International Studies, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, retrieved 11 September 2007
  82. ^ Reveron & Murer 2006
  83. ^ Lustick 1988, pp. 37–9
  84. ^ "Israel (Labor Zionism)", Country Studies, Library of Congress, retrieved 12 February 2010
  85. ^ Shulewitz, Malka Hillel (2001), The Forgotten Millions: The Modern Jewish Exodus from Arab Lands, Continuum, ISBN 978-0826447647
  86. ^ Population, by Religion and Population Group, Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, 2006, retrieved 7 August 2007
  87. ^ Hakohen, Devorah (2003), Immigrants in Turmoil: Mass Immigration to Israel and Its Repercussions in the 1950s and After, Syracuse University Press, ISBN 978-0815629696; for ma'abarot population, see p. 269.
  88. ^ Shindler 2002, pp. 49–50
  89. ^ Gilbert 2005, p. 58 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFGilbert2005 (help)
  90. ^ The Suez Crisis, University of San Diego, 5 December 2005, retrieved 15 July 2007
  91. ^ Gorst, Anthony (1997), The Suez Crisis, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415114493 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  92. ^ Adolf Eichmann, Jewish Virtual Library, retrieved 18 September 2007
  93. ^ Cole 2003, p. 27. "...the Eichmann trial, which did so much to raise public awareness of the Holocaust..."
  94. ^ Justice Ministry Reply to Amnesty International Report, Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 5 July 1995, retrieved 10 August 2007
  95. ^ Maoz, Moshe (1995), Syria and Israel: From War to Peacemaking, USA: Oxford University Press, p. 70, ISBN 978-0198280187
  96. ^ Segev 2007, p. 178
  97. ^ Segev 2007, p. 289
  98. ^ Smith 2006, p. 126. "Nasser, the Egyptian president, decided to mass troops in the Sinai...casus belli by Israel."
  99. ^ Bennet, James (13 March 2005), "The Interregnum", The New York Times Magazine, retrieved 11 February 2010
  100. ^ Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs – The Palestinian National Covenant- July 1968, Mfa.gov.il, retrieved 13 March 2009
  101. ^ Silke, Andrew (2004), Research on terrorism: trends, achievements & failures, Routledge, p. 149, ISBN 978-0714653112, retrieved 8 March 2010 {{citation}}: More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  102. ^ Gilbert, Martin (2002), The Routledge Atlas of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: The Complete History of the Struggle and the Efforts to Resolve It, Routledge, p. 82, ISBN 978-0415281164, retrieved 8 March 2010 {{citation}}: More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  103. ^ Andrews, Edmund L. and John Kifner."George Habash, Palestinian Terrorism Tactician, Dies at 82." The New York Times. 2008 Jan 27. 2008 May 12.
  104. ^ "1973: Arab states attack Israeli forces", On This Day, The BBC, 6 October 1973, retrieved 15 July 2007
  105. ^ Agranat Commission, Knesset, 2008, retrieved 8 April 2010
  106. ^ Bregman 2002, pp. 169–70 "In hindsight we can say that 1977 was a turning point..."
  107. ^ Bregman 2002, pp. 171–4
  108. ^ Bregman 2002, pp. 186–7
  109. ^ Bregman 2002, pp. 186
  110. ^ Cleveland, William L. (1999), A history of the modern Middle East, Westview Press, p. 356, ISBN 978-0813334899
  111. ^ See for example UN General Assembly resolution 63/30, 2009 Jan 23, passed 163 for, 6 against [2]
  112. ^ Bregman 2002, p. 199
  113. ^ Tessler, Mark A. (1994), A History of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict, Indiana University Press, p. 677, ISBN 978-0253208736
  114. ^ Stone & Zenner 1994, p. 246. "Toward the end of 1991,... were the result of internal Palestinian terror."
  115. ^ Haberman, Clyde (9 December 1991), "After 4 Years, Intifada Still Smolders", The New York Times, retrieved 28 March 2008
  116. ^ Mowlana, Gerbner & Schiller 1992, p. 111
  117. ^ Bregman 2002, p. 236
  118. ^ From the End of the Cold War to 2001, Boston College, retrieved 16 July 2007
  119. ^ The Oslo Accords, 1993, U.S. Department of State, retrieved 30 March 2010
  120. ^ Israel-PLO Recognition – Exchange of Letters between PM Rabin and Chairman Arafat – Sept 9- 1993, Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, retrieved 31 March 2010
  121. ^ Harkavy & Neuman 2001, p. 270. "Even though Jordan in 1994 became the second country, after Egypt to sign a peace treaty with Israel..."
  122. ^ Settlements information, Foundation for Middle East Peace, Sources of Population Growth: Total Israeli Population and Settler Population, 1991–2003, archived from the original on 2008-05-11, retrieved 12 December 2007 {{citation}}: External link in |first= (help)
  123. ^ Bregman 2002, p. 257
  124. ^ The Wye River Memorandum, U.S. Department of State, 23 October 1998, retrieved 30 March 2010
  125. ^ Gelvin 2005, p. 240
  126. ^ Jul 29-west-bank_x.htm West Bank barrier route disputed, Israeli missile kills 2, The Associated Press (via USA Today), 29 July 2004, retrieved 16 July 2007 {{citation}}: Check |url= value (help); Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  127. ^ 'Permanent Ceasefire to Be Based on Creation Of Buffer Zone Free of Armed Personnel Other than UN, Lebanese Forces' United Nations Security Council, August 11, 2006
    - escalation of hostilities in Lebanon and in Israel since Hizbollah’s attack on Israel on July 12, 2006
  128. ^ Harel, Amos (13 July 2006), "Hezbollah kills 8 soldiers, kidnaps two in offensive on northern border", Haaretz, retrieved 13 August 2006
  129. ^ Walker, Peter (21 May 2008), "Olmert confirms peace talks with Syria", The Guardian, London, retrieved 21 May 2008, Israel and Syria are holding indirect peace talks, with Turkey acting as a mediator... {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  130. ^ Koutsoukis, Jason (5 January 2009), Battleground Gaza: Israeli ground forces invade the strip, smh.com.au, retrieved 5 January 2009
  131. ^ Ravid, Barak (19 January 2009), "IDF begins Gaza troop withdrawal, hours after ending 3-week offensive", Haaretz, retrieved 29 January 2009
  132. ^ Azoulay, Yuval (1 February 2009), Two IDF soldiers, civilian lightly hurt as Gaza mortars hit Negev, Haaretz, retrieved 12 April 2009
  133. ^ "Area of Districts, Sub-Districts, Natural Regions and Lakes" (PDF), Statistical Abstract of Israel, Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, 2006
  134. ^ "Israel (Geography)", Country Studies, The Library of Congress, retrieved 2010-02-12
  135. ^ The Living Dead Sea, Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1 April 1999, retrieved 20 July 2007
  136. ^ Makhteshim Country, UNESCO, retrieved 19 September 2007
  137. ^ Jacobs 1998, p. 284. "The extraordinary Makhtesh Ramon – the largest natural crater in the world..."
  138. ^ Makhtesh Ramon, Jewish Virtual Library, retrieved 12 February 2010
  139. ^ Rinat, Zafrir (2 June 2008), "More endangered than rain forests?", Haaretz, retrieved 29 July 2008
  140. ^ Goldreich 2003, p. 85
  141. ^ Watzman, Haim (8 February 1997), Left for dead, retrieved 29 July 2008
  142. ^ Average Weather for Tel Aviv-Yafo, The Weather Channel, retrieved 11 July 2007
  143. ^ Average Weather for Jerusalem, The Weather Channel, retrieved 11 July 2007
  144. ^ Sitton, Dov (20 September 2003), Development of Limited Water Resources- Historical and Technological Aspects, Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, retrieved 7 November 2007
  145. ^ Grossman, Gershon, Solar energy for the production of heat, Samuel Neaman Institute, retrieved 7 November 2007 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  146. ^ a b "Field Listing — Executive Branch", The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, 19 June 2007, retrieved 20 July 2007
  147. ^ In the 1990s, direct elections for Prime Minister were inaugurated but the system was declared unsatisfactory and the old one was brought back. See Israel's election process explained, BBC News, 23 January 2003, retrieved 31 March 2010
  148. ^ The Electoral System in Israel, The Knesset, retrieved 8 August 2007
  149. ^ Migdalovitz, Carol (6 July 2007), Israel: Background and Relations with the United States (PDF), Congressional Research Service (via the U.S. Mission to Italy), p. 23, retrieved 20 February 2009
  150. ^ Mazie 2006, p. 34
  151. ^ a b The Judiciary: The Court System, Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1 August 2005, retrieved 5 August 2007
  152. ^ Israel's high court unique in region, The Boston Herald, 9 September 2007, retrieved 15 September 2007
  153. ^ Israel and the International Criminal Court, Office of the Legal Adviser to the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 30 June 2002, retrieved 20 July 2007
  154. ^ The State — Judiciary — The Court System, Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1 October 2006, retrieved 9 August 2007
  155. ^ Freedom in the World 2008 – Israel, Freedom House, 2008, retrieved 27 May 2009
  156. ^ Freedom in the World 2008 – Palestinian Authority-Administered Territories [Israel], Freedom House, 2008, retrieved 27 May 2009
  157. ^ Press Freedom Index 2009, Reporters Without Borders, 2009, retrieved 31 March 2010
  158. ^ "Report: Media freedom shrinks in Israel", Ynetnews.com, Associated Press, 20 October 2009, retrieved 11 February 2010
  159. ^ "Israel and the Occupied Territories", Amnesty International Report 2009, Amnesty International, 2009, retrieved 12 February 2010
  160. ^ Israel/Palestinian Authority, Human Rights Watch, retrieved 20 July 2007
  161. ^ Land Grab: Israel's Settlement Policy in the West Bank, B'Tselem, May 2002, retrieved 9 August 2007{{citation}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  162. ^ Introduction to the Tables: Geophysical Characteristics (doc), Central Bureau of Statistics, retrieved 4 September 2007
  163. ^ Localities, Population, and Density (PDF), retrieved 30 January 2010
  164. ^ a b Population of localities numbering above 2,000 residents and other rural population (PDF), Central Bureau of Statistics, 30 September 2009, retrieved 19 February 2010
  165. ^ Roberts 1990, p. 60 Although East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights have been brought directly under Israeli law, by acts that amount to annexation, both of these areas continue to be viewed by the international community as occupied, and their status as regards the applicability of international rules is in most respects identical to that of the West Bank and Gaza.
  166. ^ Primor, Adar (24 October 2009), "Solana: EU aims "to establish a Palestinian state at the earliest possible moment within the 1967 borders."", Haaretz
  167. ^ United States: "an independent and viable state based on the 1967 lines, with agreed swaps", U.S. Department of State, 25 November 2009, retrieved 10 April 2010
  168. ^ Golan Heights: UNSC Res. 497 (PDF), UN, 1981, retrieved 10 April 2010
  169. ^ East Jerusalem: UNSC Res. 478, UN, 1980, retrieved 10 April 2010
  170. ^ Olmert: Willing to trade land for peace, Ynetnews, 16 December 2006, retrieved 26 September 2007
  171. ^ "Syria ready to discuss land for peace", The Jerusalem Post, 12 June 2007, archived from the original on 2007-11-21, retrieved 26 September 2007
  172. ^ "Egypt: Israel must accept the land-for-peace formula", The Jerusalem Post, 15 May 2007, archived from the original on 2008-05-01, retrieved 26 September 2007
  173. ^ UNRWA in Figures: Figures as of 30 June 2009 (PDF), United Nations, June 2009, retrieved 27 September 2007{{citation}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  174. ^ "Questions and Answers", Israel’s Security Fence, The State of Israel, 22 February 2004, retrieved 17 April 2007
  175. ^ "Under the Guise of Security: Routing the Separation Barrier to Enable Israeli Settlement Expansion in the West Bank", Publications, B'Tselem, 2005–12, retrieved 16 April 2007 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)
  176. ^ The scope of Israeli control in the Gaza Strip, Btselem.org, retrieved 31 March 2010
  177. ^ Eubam-rafah.eu portal and Eubam-rafah.eu files
  178. ^ B'Tselem – The Gaza Strip – 30 July 2007: Joint call by human rights groups to open the Rafah border crossing, Btselem.org, retrieved 13 March 2009
  179. ^ Israel's Diplomatic Missions Abroad: Status of Relations, Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 12 July 2006, retrieved 13 March 2009
  180. ^ Israel Among the Nations: Middle East — North Africa, Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1 October 2006, retrieved 13 March 2009
  181. ^ Israel sees Morocco as mediator, BBC News, 2 September 2003, retrieved 28 September 2007
  182. ^ a b Qatar, Mauritania cut Israel ties, Al-Jazeera English, 17 January 2009, retrieved 18 May 2009
  183. ^ Abn, Abi (14 January 2009), Bolivia rompe relaciones diplomáticas con Israel y anuncia demanda por genocidio en Gaza (in Spanish), YVKE Mundial Radio, retrieved 14 April 2010
  184. ^ Initial Periodic Report of the State of Israel Concerning the Implementation of the Convention of the Rights of the Child (CRC) (PDF), Israel Ministry of Justice, February 2001, pp. 147 (173 using pdf numbering), retrieved 9 August 2007{{citation}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  185. ^ (in Hebrew) הוראות הדין הישראלי, Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2004, retrieved 9 August 2007
  186. ^ Week of 8 – March 14, 2000, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, 13 September 2001, retrieved 21 July 2007
  187. ^ Israel: Background and Relations with the United States Updated (PDF), Defense Technical Information Center, retrieved 19 October 2009
  188. ^ Migdalovitz, Carol (6 July 2007), Israel: Background and Relations with the United States (PDF), Congressional Research Service (via the U.S. Mission to Italy), p. 23, retrieved 23 September 2007
  189. ^ Kumar, Dinesh, India and Israel: Dawn of a New Era, Jerusalem Institute for Western Defense, retrieved 23 September 2007
  190. ^ Eichner, Itamar (4 March 2009), "From India with love", Ynetnews, retrieved 4 May 2010
  191. ^ "Germany and Israel", Background Papers, German Embassy, Washington, D.C., retrieved 23 September 2007
  192. ^ Boyes, Roger (17 March 2008), Israel welcomes new Germany to a celebration of its 60th birthday, London: Times Online, retrieved 13 March 2009
  193. ^ "UK and Israel", Background Papers, Uk Foreign and Commonwealth Office., retrieved 19 December 2007
  194. ^ Abadi 2004, pp. 37–9, 47
  195. ^ Abadi 2004, pp. 47–9
  196. ^ Abadi 2004, p. 3. "However, it was not until 1991 that the two countries established full diplomatic relations."
  197. ^ Abadi 2004, pp. 4–6
  198. ^ "A search for allies in a hostile world", Economist, 4 February 2010, retrieved 4 May 2010
  199. ^ History: 1948, Israel Defense Forces, 2007, retrieved 31 July 2007
  200. ^ Henderson 2003, p. 97
  201. ^ The State: Israel Defense Forces (IDF), Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 13 March 2009, retrieved 9 August 2007
  202. ^ Israel Defense Forces, GlobalSecurity.org, retrieved 16 September 2007
  203. ^ The Israel Defense Forces, Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, retrieved 21 October 2006
  204. ^ Stendel 1997, pp. 191–2
  205. ^ Shtrasler, Nehemia (16 May 2007), "Cool law, for wrong population", Haaretz, retrieved 21 July 2007
  206. ^ Sherut Leumi (National Service), Nefesh B'Nefesh, 4 July 2007, retrieved 31 July 2007
  207. ^ Wheeler, Carolynne (6 September 2007), Stars take the shine off military service, The Globe and Mail, retrieved 16 September 2007
  208. ^ Erlanger, Steven (17 August 2007), "Israel to Get $30 Billion in Military Aid From U.S.", The New York Times, retrieved 23 September 2007
  209. ^ Katz, Yaakov (30 March 2007), "'Arrow can fully protect against Iran'", The Jerusalem Post, archived from the original on 2008-05-29, retrieved 16 September 2007
  210. ^ Zorn, E. L. (8 May 2007), Israel's Quest for Satellite Intelligence, Central Intelligence Agency, retrieved 16 September 2007
  211. ^ Katz, Yaakov (11 June 2007), "Analysis: Eyes in the sky", The Jerusalem Post, archived from the original on 2008-05-02, retrieved 16 September 2007
  212. ^ Seitz, Charmaine (30 January 2001), Israel's Defense Budget: The Business Side of War, The Jerusalem Fund, retrieved 16 September 2007 (first appeared in Information Brief No. 64)
  213. ^ Mohamed ElBaradei (27 July 2004), Transcript of the Director General's Interview with Al-Ahram News, International Atomic Energy Agency, retrieved 19 July 2007
  214. ^ Israel Homeowner Glossary, Israelhomeowner.com, 3 January 2007, retrieved 13 March 2009
  215. ^ Lavi, Zvi (10 May 2010), Israel accepted into OECD, Ynet News, retrieved 10 May 2007
  216. ^ Economy Rankings — Middle East & North Africa, The World Bank Group, retrieved 13 March 2009
  217. ^ Global Competitiveness Report 2006-2007, World Economic Forum, 14 February 2007, retrieved 15 July 2007
  218. ^ Bounfour, Ahmed (2005), Intellectual Capital for Communities: Nations, Regions, and Cities, Butterworth-Heinemann, p. 47, ISBN 978-0750677738 {{citation}}: More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  219. ^ NASDAQ Appoints Asaf Homossany as New Director for Israel, NASDAQ, 6 February 2005, retrieved 4 August 2007
  220. ^ The Israel IAI-1126 Galaxy/Gulfstream G200, Airliners.net, retrieved 31 March 2010
  221. ^ CLS Bank live with Israeli Shekel and Mexican Peso, CLS Group, 26 May 2008, retrieved 11 November 2009
  222. ^ Bassok, Moti (14 February 2008), "Israelis can soon travel the world with shekels in their pockets", Haaretz, retrieved 12 February 2010
  223. ^ Ginsburg, Mitch (28 May 2007), A Hotter Holy Land, The Jerusalem Report, retrieved 30 August 2007
  224. ^ Israel keen on IT tie-ups, The Hindu Business Line, 10 January 2001, retrieved 4 August 2007
  225. ^ Israel: Punching above its weight, Economist, 14 November 2005, retrieved 4 August 2007
  226. ^ Krawitz, Avi (27 February 2007), "Intel to expand Jerusalem R&D", The Jerusalem Post, archived from the original on 2007-09-29, retrieved 4 August 2007
  227. ^ Israel R&D Center: Leadership Team, Microsoft, retrieved 4 August 2007
  228. ^ Buffet ready to buy a 'big business', IHT, 2007 {{citation}}: Text "[[May 07|]]" ignored (help)
  229. ^ Burstein, Nathan (14 August 2007), "Tourist visits above pre-war level", The Jerusalem Post, archived from the original on 2007-09-29, retrieved 4 September 2007
  230. ^ "Pope to visit Holy Land", Haaretz, retrieved 13 March 2009
  231. ^ Roads(1)(2), By Length and Area (PDF), Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics, 2008, retrieved 5 February 2010
  232. ^ a b 2008 – 2.4 Million motor vehicles in Israel, Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics, 29 June 2009, retrieved 5 February 2010
  233. ^ Bus Services on Scheduled Routes (PDF), Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics, 2009, retrieved 5 February 2010
  234. ^ a b Israeli Railway Services (PDF), Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics, 2009, retrieved 5 February 2010
  235. ^ a b c Transportation in Israel, Jewish Virtual Library, 1 November 2001, retrieved 5 February 2010
  236. ^ International Air Transport of Passengers via Ben Gurion Airport (PDF), Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics, 2009, retrieved 5 February 2010
  237. ^ תנועה אווירית בינלאומית של נוסעים לפי נמל תעופה וסוג טיסה (in Hebrew), Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics, 2009, retrieved 5 February 2010
  238. ^ "Comparing Education Statistics Across the World" (PDF), Global Education Digest 2004, UNESCO Institute for Statistics, pp. 75, 77, 2004, retrieved 4 August 2007
  239. ^ "Human Development Indicators" (PDF), Human Development Report 2005, United Nations, 2005, archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-07-02, retrieved 4 August 2007
  240. ^ ED250227 – Israeli Schools: Religious and Secular Problems, Eric.ed.gov, 10 October 1984, retrieved 13 March 2009
  241. ^ Kashti, Or (19 July 2007), "Knesset raises school dropout age to 18", Haaretz, retrieved 5 August 2007 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  242. ^ Summary of the Principal Laws Related to Education, Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 26 January 2003, retrieved 4 August 2007
  243. ^ a b Education (PDF), Ministry of Immigrant Absorption, retrieved 5 August 2007
  244. ^ The Israeli Matriculation Certificate, United States-Israel Educational Foundation via the University of Szeged University Library, January 1996, retrieved 5 August 2007{{citation}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  245. ^ Pupils in Grade XII, matriculation examinees and entitled to a certificate (PDF), Central Bureau of Statistics, retrieved 2 July 2007
  246. ^ Higher Education in Israel, Embassy of Israel in Washington, DC, retrieved 10 September 2007
  247. ^ About the Library, Jewish National and University Library, retrieved 5 August 2007
  248. ^ Top 500 World Universities (1–100), Institute of Higher Education, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 2006, retrieved 2 July 2007
  249. ^ Academic Ranking of World Universities – 2009, Institute of Higher Education, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 2009, retrieved 14 November 2009
  250. ^ Top 500 World Universities, Institute of Higher Education, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 2006, retrieved 1 August 2007
  251. ^ Top Ten Reasons to Invest in Israel, Israeli Consulate, New York City, archived from the original on 2007-07-16, retrieved 1 August 2007
  252. ^ "Israel: IT Workforce", Information Technology Landscape in Nations Around the World, American University, retrieved 14 August 2007
  253. ^ Prof. Ada Yonath awarded 2009 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 7 October 2009, retrieved 8 February 2010
  254. ^ Heylin, Michael (27 November 2006), "Globalization Of Science Rolls On", Chemical & Engineering News, American Chemical Society, pp. 26–31, retrieved 21 August 2007
  255. ^ Gordon, Evelyn (24 August 2006), "Kicking the global oil habit", The Jerusalem Post, archived from the original on 2007-09-29, retrieved 4 August 2007
  256. ^ Giant solar plants in Negev could power Israel's future, John Lettice, The Register, 2008 Jan 25
  257. ^ "Stem cell density highest in Israel", The Scientist, 21 March 2009, retrieved 14 November 2009
  258. ^ Academic Ranking of World Universities – 2009, Institute of Higher Education, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 2009, retrieved 14 November 2009
  259. ^ Top countries in space sciences, The Times Higher Education supplemmentary, 8 October 2009, retrieved 8 October 2009
  260. ^ Barbara Opall-Rome (19 November 2009), Israel Readies for Ofeq-8 Launch, Defense News, retrieved 8 February 2010
  261. ^ Tran, Mark (21 January 2008), "Israel launches new satellite to spy on Iran", Guardian Unlimited, London, retrieved 22 January 2008
  262. ^ a b Israel Pushes Solar Energy Technology, Linda Gradstein, National Public Radio, 2007 Oct 22.
  263. ^ a b At the Zenith of Solar Energy, Neal Sandler,BusinessWeek, 2008 Mar 26.
  264. ^ a b Looking to the sun, Tom Parry, Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, 2007 Aug 15.
  265. ^ Del Chiaro, Bernadette, Solar Water Heating (How California Can Reduce Its Dependence on Natural Gas) (PDF), Environment California Research and Policy Center, retrieved 29 September 2007 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  266. ^ Gershon Grossman; Ofira Ayalon; Yifaat Baron; Debby Kaufman (2007), Solar energy for the production of heat Summary and recommendations of the 4th assembly of the energy forum at SNI, The Samuel Neaman Institute for Advanced Research in Science and Technology, retrieved 12 February 2010
  267. ^ Solar, what else?!
  268. ^ Johnathan Marcus (2 May 2005), "Israeli Arabs: 'Unequal citizens'", BBC News, retrieved 6 December 2007
  269. ^ Israel may admit 3,000 Ethiopia migrants if Jews. Reuters. 2009 Jul 16.
  270. ^ Aug 16-1816635503_x.htm Israel's Welcome for Ethiopian Jews Wears Thin. USA Today 2008 Aug 16.
  271. ^ Friedberg, Rachel M. (November 2001), "The Impact of Mass Migration on the Israeli Labor Market", The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 116 (4): 1373, doi:10.1162/003355301753265606{{citation}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  272. ^ Study: Soviet immigrants outperform Israeli students. Haaretz. 10/02/2008.
  273. ^ The Economist March 11th 2010 article "Israel's disputatious Avigdor Lieberman: Can the coalition hold together?"
  274. ^ Q&A Lily Galili on 'The Russians in Israel'. Haaretz
  275. ^ Israel: Crackdown on illegal migrants and visa violators. Integrated Regional Information Networks (IRIN). 2009 Jul 14.
  276. ^ Adriana Kemp, "Labour migration and racialisation: labour market mechanisms and labour migration control policies in Israel", Social Identities 10:2, 267–292, 2004
  277. ^ Israel Struggles With African Refugee Dilemma. ABC News. 2009 Aug 12
  278. ^ Meir, Irit (2007), A Language in Space: The Story of Israeli Sign Language, Psychology Press, p. 352, ISBN 978-0805855708 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  279. ^ DellaPergola, Sergio (2000) [2000], Still Moving: Recent Jewish Migration in Comparative Perspective, Daniel J. Elazar and Morton Weinfeld eds. (ed.), 'The Global Context of Migration to Israel', New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, pp. 13–60, ISBN 1-56000-428-2 {{citation}}: |editor= has generic name (help)
  280. ^ Herman, Pini (1 September 1983), "The Myth of the Israeli Expatriate", Moment Magazine, 8 (8): 62–63
  281. ^ Gould, Eric; Moav, Omer (2006), Brain Drain From Israel (Brichat Mochot M'Yisrael) (PDF) (in Hebrew), Jerusalem: Mercaz Shalem — The Shalem Center, The Social-Economic Institute, p. 26
  282. ^ Rettig, Haviv (6 April 2008), "Officials to US to bring Israelis home", Jerusalem Post, archived from the original on 2008-06-02, retrieved 29 April 2008
  283. ^ "Settlements in the West Bank", Settlement Information, Foundation for Middle East Peace, archived from the original on 2008-02-24, retrieved 12 December 2007
  284. ^ "Settlements in the Golan Heights", Settlement Information, Foundation for Middle East Peace, retrieved 12 December 2007
  285. ^ "Settlements in East Jerusalem", Settlement Information, Foundation for Middle East Peace, archived from the original on 2008-04-20, retrieved 12 December 2007
  286. ^ "Settlements in the Gaza Strip", Settlement Information, Foundation for Middle East Peace, retrieved 12 December 2007
  287. ^ The Law of Return, Knesset, retrieved 14 August 2007
  288. ^ Central Bureau of Statistics, Government of Israel, Jews and others, by origin, continent of birth and period of immigration (PDF), retrieved 8 April 2006
  289. ^ Ada Aharoni "The Forced Migration of Jews from Arab Countries, Historical Society of Jews from Egypt website. Retrieved 2009 Feb 01.
  290. ^ "The myth of the Mizrahim". Guardian.co.uk. April 3, 2009.
  291. ^ Elazar, Daniel J., Religion in Israel: A Consensus for Jewish Tradition, Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, retrieved 6 September 2007
  292. ^ Central Bureau of Statistics, Government of Israel, Population, by religion and population group (PDF), retrieved 6 August 2007
  293. ^ Bassok, Moti (25 December 2006), "Israel's Christian population numbers 148, 000 as of Christmas Eve", Haaretz, retrieved 29 July 2008
  294. ^ National Population Estimates (PDF), Central Bureau of Statistics, p. 27, retrieved 6 August 2007
  295. ^ Levine, Lee I. (1999), Jerusalem: its sanctity and centrality to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, Continuum International Publishing Group, p. 516, ISBN 978-0826410245
  296. ^ The Bahá'í World Centre: Focal Point for a Global Community, The Bahá'í International Community, retrieved 2 July 2007
  297. ^ Teaching the Faith in Israel, Bahá'í Library Online, 23 June 1995, retrieved 6 August 2007
  298. ^ Immigration and Social and Cultural Diversity Among the Jewish Population, International Youth Foundation, retrieved 6 September 2007
  299. ^ Jewish Festivals and Days of Remembrance in Israel, Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, retrieved 16 September 2007
  300. ^ Ran, Ami (25 August 1998), Encounters: The Vernacular Paradox of Israeli Architecture, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, retrieved 6 September 2007
  301. ^ Brinn, David (23 October 2005), Israeli, Palestinian and Jordanian DJs create bridge for peace, Israel21c, retrieved 16 September 2007
  302. ^ The International Israeli Table, Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, retrieved 26 June 2009
  303. ^ Depositing Books to The Jewish National & University Library, Jewish National and University Library, retrieved 21 August 2007
  304. ^ Israeli Book Statistics for 2006, Jewish National and University Library, retrieved 12 August 2007
  305. ^ The Nobel Prize in Literature 1966, Nobel Foundation, retrieved 12 August 2007
  306. ^ Broughton, Ellingham & Trillo 1999, p. 365–9
  307. ^ "Israel", World Music, National Geographic Society, retrieved 13 August 2007
  308. ^ "Israeli Folk", World Music, National Geographic Society, retrieved 13 August 2007
  309. ^ Ben-Sasson, Hayim (1985), A History of the Jewish People, Harvard University Press, p. 1095, ISBN 978-0674397316
  310. ^ Ewbank, Alison J. (1997), Whose Master's Voice?: The Development of Popular Music in Thirteen Cultures, Greenwood Press, p. 117, ISBN 978-0313277726 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  311. ^ Davis, Barry (5 February 2007), Israel Philharmonic Orchestra celebrates 70th anniversary, Ministry of Foreign Affairs (from Israel21c), retrieved 13 August 2007
  312. ^ "Israel", Eurovision Song Contest, Eurovision Broadcasting Union, archived from the original on 2007-06-22, retrieved 13 August 2007
  313. ^ About Us, Red Sea Jazz Festival, archived from the original on 2007-08-12, retrieved 13 August 2007
  314. ^ Brown, Hannah (2 February 2010), "'Ajami' nominated for Oscar", Jerusalem Post
  315. ^ (in Hebrew) התיאטרון הלאומי הבימה, Habima National Theatre, retrieved 13 August 2007
  316. ^ a b About the Museum, The Israel Museum, Jerusalem, retrieved 13 August 2007
  317. ^ Shrine of the Book, The Israel Museum, Jerusalem, retrieved 13 August 2007
  318. ^ About Yad Vashem: The Yad Vashem Library, Yad Vashem, retrieved 13 August 2007
  319. ^ Museum Information, Beth Hatefutsoth, retrieved 13 August 2007
  320. ^ Davidson, Herbert Alan (2005), Moses Maimonides, p. 479, ISBN 019517321X
  321. ^ Griver, Simon (June 1999), Sports in Israel, Jewish Virtual Library, retrieved 13 August 2007{{citation}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  322. ^ Montague, James (27 Feb 2008), "Time is right for Israel to return to its Asian roots", Guardian, retrieved 4 May 2010
  323. ^ Torstrick 2004, p. 141
  324. ^ Basketball Super League Profile, Winner Basketball Super League, retrieved 13 August 2007
  325. ^ Bouskila, Daniel (13 May 2005), "Israel Wins More Than Hoop Crown", The Jewish Journal, retrieved 21 August 2007
  326. ^ "Israeli tennis stars return to action", The Jerusalem Post, 26 Dec 2006, retrieved 4 May 2010
  327. ^ Bekerman, Eitan (4 September 2006), "Chess masters set to compete in world blitz championship", Haaretz
  328. ^ World Team Championship in Beer Sheva, Israel, World Chess Federation, 1 November 2005, retrieved 13 March 2009
  329. ^ Tzahor, Uri (26 November 2008), "Israel takes silver medal at Chess Olympiad", Ynewnews.com
  330. ^ Shvidler, Eli (15 December 2009), "Israeli grand master Boris Gelfand wins Chess World Cup", Haaretz
  331. ^ Olympic Medal Winners (under Europe / Israel), International Olympic Committee, retrieved 13 August 2007
  332. ^ Tel Aviv 1968, International Paralympic Committee, retrieved 20 September 2008

Bibliography

[edit]
  • Abadi, Jacob (2004), Israel's Quest for Recognition and Acceptance in Asia: Garrison State Diplomacy, Routledge, ISBN 0714655767
  • Ausubel, Natan (1964), The Book of Jewish Knowledge, New York, New York: Crown Publishers, ISBN 051709746X
  • Barton, John; Bowden, Julie (2004), The Original Story: God, Israel and the World, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, ISBN 0802829007
  • Barzilai, Gad (1996), Wars, Internal Conflicts, and Political Order: A Jewish Democracy in the Middle East, State University of New York Press, ISBN 0-7914-2943-1
  • Best, Anthony (2003), International History of the Twentieth Century, Routledge, ISBN 0415207398
  • Bregman, Ahron (2002), A History of Israel, Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 0333676319
  • Broughton, Simon; Ellingham, Mark; Trillo, Richard (1999), World Music: The Rough Guide, Rough Guides, ISBN 1858286352
  • Cole, Tim (2003), Holocaust City: The Making of a Jewish Ghetto, Routledge, ISBN 0415929687
  • Crowdy, Terry (2006), The Enemy Within: A History of Espionage, Osprey Publishing, ISBN 1841769339
  • Dekmejian, R. Hrair (1975), Patterns of Political Leadership: Egypt, Israel, Lebanon, State University of New York Press, ISBN 087395291X
  • Friedland, Roger; Hecht, Richard (2000), To Rule Jerusalem, University of California Press, ISBN 0520220927
  • Gelvin, James L. (2005), The Israel-Palestine Conflict: One Hundred Years of War, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521852897
  • Gilbert, Martin (2005), The Routledge Atlas Of The Arab-Israeli Conflict (8th ed.), Routledge, ISBN 0415359007
  • Goldreich, Yair (2003), The Climate of Israel: Observation, Research and Application, Springer, ISBN 030647445X
  • Hamilton, Victor P. (1995), The Book of Genesis (2nd revised ed.), Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, ISBN 0802823092
  • Harkavy, Robert E.; Neuman, Stephanie G. (2001), Warfare and the Third World, Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 0312240120
  • Henderson, Robert D'A. (2003), Brassey's International Intelligence Yearbook (2003 ed.), Brassey's Inc., ISBN 1574885502
  • Herzl, Theodor (1946), The Jewish State, American Zionist Emergency Council, ISBN 0486258491
  • Howe, Kathleen Stewart (1997), Revealing the Holy Land: the photographic exploration of Palestine, University of California Press, p. 144, ISBN 9780899510958
  • Jacobs, Daniel (1988), Israel and the Palestinian Territories: The Rough Guide (2nd revised ed.), Rough Guides, ISBN 1858282489
  • Kellerman, Aharon (1993), Society and Settlement: Jewish Land of Israel in the Twentieth Century, State University of New York Press, ISBN 0791412954
  • Kornberg, Jacques (1993), Theodor Herzl: From Assimilation to Zionism, Indiana University Press, ISBN 0253332036
  • Liebreich, Fritz (2005), Britain's Naval and Political Reaction to the Illegal Immigration of Jews to Palestine, 1945–1948, Routledge, ISBN 0714656372
  • Lustick, Ian (1988), For the Land and the Lord: Jewish Fundamentalism in Israel, Council on Foreign Relations Press, ISBN 0876090366
  • Mazie, Steven (2006), Israel's Higher Law: Religion and Liberal Democracy in the Jewish State, Lexington Books, ISBN 0739114859
  • Morçöl, Göktuğ (2006), Handbook of Decision Making, CRC Press, ISBN 1574445480
  • Mowlana, Hamid; Gerbner, George; Schiller, Herbert I. (1992), Triumph of the File: The Media's War in the Persian Gulf — A Global Perspective, Westview Press, ISBN 0813316103
  • Roberts, Adam (1990), "Prolonged Military Occupation: The Israeli-Occupied Territories Since 1967", The American Journal of International Law, 84 (1), American Society of International Law: 44–103, doi:10.2307/2203016, JSTOR 2203016, S2CID 145514740{{citation}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
  • Romano, Amy (2003), A Historical Atlas of Israel, The Rosen Publishing Group, ISBN 0823939782
  • Reveron, Derek S.; Murer, Jeffrey Stevenson (2006), Flashpoints in the War on Terrorism, Routledge, ISBN 0415954908
  • Rosenzweig, Rafael (1997), The Economic Consequences of Zionism, T Brill Academic Publishers, ISBN 9004091475
  • Rummel, Rudolph J. (1997), Power Kills: Democracy As a Method of Nonviolence, Transaction Publishers, ISBN 0765805235
  • Sampter, Jessie (2007) [1933], "Jewish Colonization Before 1917", in Sampter, Jessie (ed.), Modern Palestine – A Symposium, READ BOOKS, p. 444, ISBN 9781406738346
  • Scharfstein, Sol (1996), Understanding Jewish History, KTAV Publishing House, ISBN 0881255459
  • Shindler, Colin (2002), The Land Beyond Promise: Israel, Likud and the Zionist Dream, I.B.Tauris Publishers, ISBN 186064774X
  • Skolnik, Fred (2007), Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 9 (2nd ed.), Macmillian, ISBN 978-0028659282
  • Smith, Derek (2006), Deterring America: Rogue States and the Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521864658
  • Stein, Leslie (2003), The Hope Fulfilled: The Rise of Modern Israel, Greenwood Press, ISBN 0275971414
  • Stendel, Ori (1997), The Arabs in Israel, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 1898723230
  • Stone, Russell A.; Zenner, Walter P. (1994), Critical Essays on Israeli Social Issues and Scholarship, SUNY Press, ISBN 0791419592
  • Torstrick, Rebecca L. (2004), Culture and Customs of Israel, Greenwood Press, ISBN 0313320918
  • Wenham, Gordon J. (1994), Word Biblical Commentary, vol. 2 (Genesis 16–50), Dallas, Texas: Word Books, ISBN 0849902010
[edit]
Government
General reference
Media
Other

31°N 35°E / 31°N 35°E / 31; 35

ak:Israel

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Mr.Z-man/withrefs&oldid=1255345043"