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Amīr al-Mu'minin Usman

Caliph Usman's Empire at its greatest extent
Usman bin Affan
Born	580, Ta’if, Saudi Arabia
Died	July 656, Medina, Saudi Arabia
Reign	11 November 644–17 July 656
Title(s)	Thu Al-Nurayn, Amir al-Mu'minin
Buried	Jannat al-Baqi
Predecessor	Umar
Successor	Ali

For other uses of the name, see Uthman (name).

‘Uthmān ibn ‘Affān (عثمان بن عفان) (c. 580 - July 17 656) is the third Caliph of Islam and is regarded by Sunni Muslims as the third of the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs of Islam. He reigned from 644 until 656. However, Shia Muslims believe Ali was the first legitimate ruler, and discount the rule of the first three Caliphs, including Uthman.

Early life

Uthman was born in Taif and not in Makkah. As Taif is situated on a hill, the presumption is that Uthman was born during the summer months, since wealthy Makkans usually spent the hot summers in the cooler climate of Taif. He was born into the wealthy Umayyad (Banu Umayya) clan of the Quraish tribe in Makkah, seven years after Muhammad. Uthman's father, Affan, died young when travelling abroad, but left much wealth for Uthman to inherit. Uthman followed the same profession as his father, and his business flourished, making him a millionaire, and one of the richest men among the Quraishi tribe.

Conversion to Islam

Uthman was an early convert to Islam, and is said to have spent a great deal of his wealth on charity. On return from a business trip from Syria in 611 A.D, Uthman came to know that Muhammad had declared his Prophetic mission, after a long discussion with his friend Abu Bakr he decided to convert to Islam, and Abu Bakr took him to Prophet Mohammad to whom he declared his faith. Uthman thus became the second adult male to converte to Islam, after Abu Bakr. His conversion to Islam angered his clan, who strongly opposed Prophet Mohammad teachings. The only two people who supported Uthman's decision were Saadi, a maternal aunt of Uthman, and Umm Kulsum, who was his step-sister and who had also converted to Islam as well. Because of his conversion to Islam, Uthman's wives deserted him and he subsequently divorced them. Prophet Mohammad then asked Uthman to marry his daughter Ruqayyah bint Muhammad.

Migration to Abyssinia

Uthman and his wife Ruqayya migrated to Aksumite Ethiopia in 614-615, along with 11 other men and 11 women Muslims. As Uthman already had some business contacts in Abyssinia, Uthman continued to practice his profession as a trader. He worked hard, and soon his business flourished. After two years, the news spread among the Muslims in Abyssinia that the Quraish of Makkah had accepted Islam, and that convinced Uthman, Ruqayya, and some other Muslims return to Makkah. When they reached Makkah however, it transpired that the news about Quraish's acceptance of Islam was false. Some of the Muslims who had come from Abyssinia returned, but Uthman and Ruqayya decided to stay. In Makkah, Uthman had to start his business afresh, but the contacts that he had already established in Abyssinia stood in good stead, and the business of Uthman prospered once again.

Migration to Medina

In 622 A.D Uthman and his wife Ruqayya migrated to Madinah. They were amongst the third batch of the Muslims who migrated to Madinah. On arrival in Madinah Uthman stayed with Aus bin Thabit Al Ansari of the Najjar tribe. After a short while, Uthman purchased a house of his own and shifted there. Being one of the richest merchants of Makkah, and having amassed a considerable fortune, Uthman did not need any financial help from his Ansari brother, as he brought all his wealth with him to Madinah. In Madinah the Muslims were generally farmers and were not very interested in trade, and thus most of the trading that took place in the town was handled by the Jews. There was thus considerable space for the Muslims in promoting trade. Uthman took advantage of this position and established himself as a trader in Madinah. He worked hard and honestly, and his business flourished. Soon he became one of the richest men in Madinah as he had been one of the richest merchants in Makkah. .

Life in Madinah

In 624 A.D, some Muslims from Medina departed to assist in the capture of a Quraish caravan. At this time, Uthman's wife Ruqayya suffered from malaria and then caught small pox. Uthman stayed at Madinah to look after the ailing Ruqayya, and did not join those who left with Muhammad. Ruqayya died during the time the Battle of Badr was being fought, and the news of the victory of Badr reached Madina as Ruqayya was being buried. Prophet Mohammad could not attend her funeral. Uthman participated in the Battle of Uhud which was fought in 625 A.D, and after that battle he married Prophet Mohammad's second daughter, Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad. The next year, Uthman's son Abd-Allah ibn Uthman died. When the Battle of the Trench was fought in 627 A.D, Uthman was in charge of a sector of Medina. After the Battle of the Trench a campaign was undertaken against the Jews of Banu Qaynuqa, and when the Jews were taken captive, the question of the disposal of the slaves became a problem. Uthman solved the issue by purchasing all the slaves, and depositing their price in the Baitul Mal (Treasury). Any of these slaves who accepted Islam were set free by Uthman in the name of Allah.

Treaty of Hudaibiyah

In March of 628 A.D (6 Hijrah), Prophet Muhammad set for Mecca to perform the ritual pilgrimage of Hajj. The Quraish denied the Muslim entry into the city and posted themselves outside Mecca, determined to show resistance even though the Muslims had no intention or preparation for battle. Prophet Muhammad camped outside Mecca at Hudaybiyyah and sent Uthman ibn Affan as his envoy to meet with the leaders of Quraish and negotiate Muslim entry into the city. The Quraish made ʻUthmān to stay longer in Mecca than he originally planned and refused to inform the Muslims of his whereabouts. This caused the Muslims to believe that Uthman had been killed by the people of Quraish. On this occasion, Prophet Muhammad gathered his nearly 1400 companions and called them to pledge to fight until death and avenge the death of Uthmān. This pledge took place under a tree and was thus known as the Pledge of the Tree. Each companion came before Prophet Muhammad and, with his hand on top of Muhammad's, pledged to fight until death and avenge the death of Uthmān. It is reported that the Prophet placed his one hand on top of the other and pledged on behalf of Uthman as well. The pledge was successful in demonstrating to the Quraish the determination of the Muslims. They soon released Uthmān and sent down an ambassador of their own, Suhail ibn Amr to negotiate terms of a treaty that later became known as the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah.

Prophet Mohammad's last years

In 629 A.D, Uthman participated in the Battle of Khaybar. Later that year, he followed Prophet Mohammad to perform Umrah in Makkah. Uthman visited his mother in Mecca to find that his family was not as hostile to Islam as they used to be. In 630 A.D Quraish broke the treaty of Hudaibiyah, and Muslims attacked and conquered Mecca. General amnesty was granted to the people of Makkah, though an exception was made in the case of half a dozen people. Amongst those not granted amnesty was Abdullah bin Saad, a foster brother of Uthman. He would later be forgiven by Prophet Mohammad because of Uthman, as Abdullah's mother appealed to Uthman. Following the Conquest of Mecca Uthman's family converted to Islam and he rejoined his mother and siblings. He also participated in the Battle of Hunain that same year under Prophet Mohammad, followed by Siege of Taif. To Uthman, the conquest of Makkah and Taif were of particular significance, as he had considerable property in both Makkah and Taif, and he could now profitably develop this property. He was also able to set up sub-offices of his business at Makkah and Taif. Uthman's wife and daughter of Prophet Mohammad, Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad died soon after the conquest of Makkah. In 630 C.E. the Prophet Mohammad decided to lead an expedition to Tabuk on the Syrian border. In order to finance the expedition the Prophet Mohammad invited contributions from his followers. Uthman made the largest contribution: one thousand diners in cash, a thousand camels for transport, and horses for the cavalry. The Prophet Mohammad greatly appreciated the services of Uthman. In 631 A.D Uthman along with other Muslims moved to Makkah to perform Hajj under Abu Bakr, Prophet Mohammad stayed in Madinah. In Makkah Uthman married Umm Saeed Fatima bint Al Walid b Abd Shams, a Quraishi lady. Thereafter Uthman returned to Madina with his bride. In 632 A.D Uthman along with Prophet Mohammad participated in the The Farewell Pilgrimage. In 632 A.D Prophet Mohammad passed away, and Uthman, like other Muslims, was in great grief.

Caliph Abu Bakr's era (632–634)

Uthman had a very close relationship with Abu Bakr, as it was at the hands of Abu Bakr that Uthman had accepted Islam. When Abu Bakr was elected as the Caliph, Uthman was the first person after Umar to offer allegiance to Abu Bakr. During the apostasy wars(Ridda wars), Uthman remained at Madinah, acting as Abu Bakr's adviser. On his death bed Abu Bakr dictated his will to Uthman, that his successor was to be Umar.

Caliph Umar's Era (634–644)

Uthman was the first person to offer his allegiance to Umar. During the reign of Umar, Uthman remained at Madinah as his adviser, and a member of Umar's advisory council. Umar did not allow the Companions including Uthman to leave Madinah<-!why?->. During the reign of Umar, considerable wealth flowed into the public treasury. Uthman advised that some amount be reserved in the treasury for future needs, instead of giving all as stipends to the Muslims, and this was accepted by Umar. A controversy then arose about the land in conquered lands: the army was of the view that all lands in conquered territories should be distributed among the soldiers of the conquering army, but others thought that the lands should remain as the property of the original owners, and the lands without claimants should be declared as state property. Uthman supported the latter view and this view was ultimately accepted. At the time of the conquest of Jerusalem the Christians asked that Umar should come to Jerusalem to accept the surrender of the city. Uthman was of the view that it was not necessary for the Caliph of the Muslims to go to Jerusalem and that the enemy, when defeated, would surrender the city unconditionally. There was much force in Uthman's argument, but in order to win the good will of the Christians, Umar decided to go to Jerusalem to accept the surrender of the city. In the time of Umar, a severe famine broke out in the country, large caravan belonging to Uthman carrying large supplies of food grains served the poor well.

Election of Uthman

Main article: The election of Uthman

File:Galexa20 Osman Hagia Sophia.jpg

Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, Calligraphy of Uthman

Umar on his death bed accordingly constituted a committee of six people to choose the next Caliph from amongst themselves.
This committee was comprised of:

• Ali ibn Abu Talib
• Uthman ibn Affan
• Abdur Rahman bin Awf
• Sa`ad ibn Abi Waqqas
• Zubayr ibn al-Awwam
• Talha ibn Ubayd-Allah

Umar asked that after his death the committee should reach the final decision within three days, and the next Caliph should take the oath of office on the fourth day. If Talha ibn Ubayd-Allah joined the committee within this period, he was to take part in the deliberations, but if he did not return to Madinah within this period, the other members of the committee could proceed to take the decision. Abdur Rahman bin Awf withdrew his eligibility to be appointed as Caliph in order to act as a moderator. Abdur Rahman bin Awf began his task by interviewing each member of the committee separately, asking to whom they will cast their vote. When Ali was asked, he said to Uthman. When Uthman was asked, he said to Ali, Zubayr said to Ali or Uthman, Saad said to Uthman. After Abdul Rahman consulted the other leaders of public opinion in Madinah, who were in favor of Uthman, he arrived at the conclusion that the majority of the people favored the election of Uthman. On the fourth day after the death of Umar, 11 November 644 A.D., 5th Muharram 24 Hijrah, Uthman was elected as the third Caliph, with the title, "Amir al-Mu'minin".

Reign as a Caliph (644–656)

On assuming office, Uthman issued a number of directives to the officials all over the dominions ordering them to hold fast the laws made by his predecessor Umar. Uthman's realm extended in the west to Morocco, in the east to South east Pakistan, and in the north to Armenia and Azerbaijan. During his caliphate a navy was organized, administrative divisions of the state were revised, and many public projects were expanded and completed. Uthman sent prominent Companions of the Prophet Mohammad as his personal deputies to various provinces to scrutinize the conduct of officials and the condition of the people. Uthman ruled for twelve years. The first six years were marked by internal peace and tranquility, but during the second half of his caliphate a rebellion arose. Uthman was the last caliph to enjoy unity in the Muslim world, as all later Caliphs would have opposition.

Reforms of Uthman's era

Economic reforms

Uthman was a shrewd business man and a successful trader from his youth, his shrewdness in economical matters contributed a lot to Islamic empire. Caliph Umar had fixed the allowance of the people. On assuming office, Uthman increased it by 25 %. Umar had placed a ban on the sale of lands in conquered territories. Umar had placed restriction on the purchase of agricultural lands in conquered territories. Uthman withdrew this restriction, [8] in view that the trade could not flourish under these restrictions. Uthman also permitted people to draw loans from the public treasury [9]. Under Umar it had been laid down as a policy that the lands in conquered territories were not to be distributed among the combatants, but were to remain the property of the previous owners. The army felt dissatisfied at this decision, but Umar suppressed the opposition with a strong hand. Uthman followed the policy devised by Umar[10]. In the time of Uthman there were more conquests, and the revenues from land increased considerably. In the time of Uthman the army once again raised the demand for the distribution of the lands in conquered territories among the fighting soldiers. Uthman turned down the demand; it favored the Dhimmis (non-Muslims in Islamic state) a lot.

The coins were of persian origin, and had image of last persian emperor, Muslim added the sentence Bismillah to it.

The first Islamic coins were struck during the caliphate of Uthman, in 651 A.D, these were the persian Dirhams that had image of persian emperor Yezghard III with addition of the arabic sentence Bismillah (begin from name of Allah). How ever the first original minting of Islamic Dirham was done in 695 A.D during Umayyad period. Caliph Umar the predecessor of Uthman was very strict in the use of money from the public treasury. Apart from the meager allowance that had been sanctioned in his favor Umar took no money from the treasury. He did not receive any gifts, nor did he allow any of his family members to accept any gift from any quarter. During the time of Uthman there was some relaxation in such strictness. Uthman did not draw any allowance from the treasury for his personal use nor took any salary, he was a wealthy man with sufficient resources of his own, but unlike Umar, Uthman accepted gifts and allowed his family members to accept gifts from certain quarters. Uthman honestly felt that he had the right to utilize the public funds according to his best judgment, and no one had the right to criticize him for that. The economic reforms introduced by Uthman had far reaching effects; Muslims as well as non-Muslims of the Islamic empire enjoyed an economically prospered life during the reign of Caliph Uthman.

Public work

Under Uthman the people became economically more prosperous, and they invested their money in the construction of buildings. Many new and larger buildings were constructed through out the empire. During the caliphate of Uthman as many as five thousand new mosques were constructed. Uthman enlarged, extended, and embellished the Masjid-e-Nabawi at Madinah. He enlarged and extended the Holy Kaaba as well. With the expansion in army, the cantonments were extended and enlarged. More barracks were constructed for the soldiers. Stables for the cavalry were extended. Uthman provided separate pastures for State camels. During the caliphate of Uthman, guest houses were provided in main cities to provide comfort to the merchants coming from far away places. More and more markets were constructed. Uthman appointed Market Officers to look after markets. In Iraq, Egypt and Persia numerous canals were dug which stimulated the process of agricultural development. In the cities, particular attention was directed towards the provision of water supply. In Madinah, a number of wells were dug to provide drinking water for the people. The water supply in Makkah was also improved. Water was brought to Kufa and Basra by canals. Shuaibia was the port for Makkah. It was inconvenient. Uthman selected Jeddah as the site of the new seaport, and a new port was built there. Uthman also reformed the department of Police in cities.

Administration

In his testament, Caliph Umar had instructed his successor not to make any change in the administrative set up for one year after his death. For obe year Uthman maintained the pattern of political administration as it stood under Umar, latter he made some amendments. Under Umar Egypt was divided into two provinces, Upper and Lower Egypt. Uthman made Egypt one province. Uthman created a new province for North Africa. Under Umar Syria was divided into two provinces. Uthman made Syria one province. During Uthman’s reign the empire was divided into twelve provinces. These were:

1. Madinah
2. Makkah
3. Yemen
4. Kufa
5. Basra
6. Jazira
7. Fars
8. Azerbaijan
9. Khurasan
10. Syria
11. Egypt
12. North Africa

The provinces were further divided into districts, there were more then 100 districts in the empire, each district or main city had it own Governor, Chief Judge and Amil(the tax collector). The Governors were appointed by Uthman. Every appointment was made in writing. At the time of appointment an instrument of instructions was issued with a view to regulating the conduct of Governors. On assuming office, the Governor was required to assemble the people in the main mosque, and read the instrument of instructions before them. Uthman appointed his kinsmen as governors of four provinces namely: Egypt, Syria, Busra and Kufa . The kindest explanation for this reliance on his kin is that the Islamic empire had expanded so far, so fast, that it was becoming extremely difficult to govern, and that Uthman felt that he could trust his own kin not to revolt against him. However shia Muslims did not see this as prudence; they saw it as nepotism, and an attempt to rule like a king rather than as the first among equals.

Qur'an

Uthman is perhaps best known for forming the committee which compiled the text of the Qur'an as it exists today. The reason was that various Muslim centers, like Kufa and Damascus, had begun to develop their own traditions for reciting and writing down the Qur'an.

Uthman feared that the nascent Islamic empire would fall apart in religious controversy if everyone did not have access to the original text of Qur'an. Towards the end of his reign, the committee finished compiling the text, and Uthman had it copied and sent copies to each of the Muslim cities and garrison towns, commanding that variant versions of the Qur'an be destroyed, and only the original version used.

Zayd ibn Thabit was put in charge of the operation

(Note that John Wansbrough and some Western historians believe that the Qur'an was completed later than Uthman's time; theirs is a minority opinion. See the article on the Qur'an.)

Military expansion

Byzantine attempt to re-capture Egypt

With the death of Caliph Umar and dispossal of Amr ibn al-Aas from the governor ship of Egypt, Byzantine invaded the Alexandria thinking it to be the right time to take action. Uthman again sent Amr ibn al-Aas to defend Egypt and made him governor and Commander in chief of Egypt. Amr defeated the byzantine forces in the Battle of Naqyus few hundred miles from Fustat. After defeat of Byzantine army at Naqyus, Muslim forces laid the siege of Alexandria, it was conquered shortly after a coptic opened the gates of city one night, in return of amnesty for him. After re-conquering Alexandria, Amr ibn al-Aas ordered to demolish the walls of the city to prevent future invasion of Byzantine forces. Amr was again disposed from his post due to his loose financial administration.

North Africa

After the withdrawal of the Byzantines from Egypt, North Africa had declared its independence under its king Gregory. The dominions of Gregory extended from the borders of Egypt to Morocco. Abdullah ibn Saad use to send raiding parties to the west. As a result of these raids the Muslims got considerable booty The success of these raids made Abdullah ibn Saad feel that a regular campaign should be undertaken for the conquest of North Africa. Uthman gave him permission after considering it in ‘’Majlis al shura’’, a force of 10,000 soldiers was sent as reinforcement. The Muslim forces assembled in Barqa in Cyrenaica, from there they marched west to capture Tripoli, after Tripoli they the army marched to Subetula the capital of King Gregory, he was defeated and killed in the battle due to superb tactics used by Abdullah ibn Zubayr. After the battle of Subetula the people of North Africa sued for peace. They agreed to pay an annual tribute. Instead of annexing North Africa, the Muslims preferred to make North Africa a vassal state. When the stipulated amount of the tribute was paid, the Muslim forces withdrew to Barqa.

First Muslim conquest of Spain

According to the general books of Islamic history the conquest of Spain is attributed to Tariq ibn Ziyad and Musa ibn Naseer in 711 - 712 C.E. in the time of the Umayyad Caliph Walid ibn Abdul Malik. According to Muslim Historian Tabari, Spain was first conquered some sixty years earlier during the caliphate of Uthman. Other promenient Muslim Historians like Ibn Aksir also have quoted the same narration. According to the account of Tabari, when North Africa had been duly conquered by Abdullah ibn Saad, two of his Generals Abdullah ibn Nafiah ibn Husain, and Abdullah ibn Nafi' ibn Abdul Qais were commissioned to invade coastal areas of Spain by sea. On this occasion Uthman is reported to have addressed a letter to the invading force. In the course of the letter, Uthman said:

“ Constantinople will be conquered from the side of Spain. Thus if you conquer Spain you will have the honor of taking the first step towards the conquest of Constantinople. You will have your reward in this behalf both in this world and the next. ”

No details of the campaigns in Spain during the caliphate of Uthman are given by Tabari or any other historian. The account of Tabari is merely to the effect that an Arab force aided by a Berber force landed in Spain, and succeeded in conquering Al-Andalus. We do not know where the Muslim force landed, what resistance they met, and what parts of Spain did they actually conquer. Anyhow it is clear that the Muslims did conquer some parts of Spain during the caliphate of Uthman. Presumably the Muslims established some colonies on the coastland of Spain. There are reasons to presume that these Muslims entered into trade relations with the rest of Spain and other parts of Europe.

Nubia (sudan)

A campaign was undertaken against Nubia during the caliphate of Umar in 641 A.D, but the campaign was inconclusive and Muslim forces were pulled out of Nubia with out any success.

Location of Dongola within Sudan

Ten years latter Uthman’s governor Egypt, Abdullah ibn Saad sent an other army to Nubia, Muslims laid the siege of the Nubian capital city of Dongola. The battle was once against inconclusive, because of finest Nubian archers who let loose a shower of arrows aimed at the eyes of the Muslim warriors. As the Muslims were not able to overpower the Nubians, they accepted the Nubian offer of peace. According to the treaty that was signed, each side agreed not to make any aggression against the other. Each side agreed to afford free passage to the other party through its territories. Nubia agreed to provide 360 slaves to Egypt every year, while Egypt agreed to supply grain to Nubia according to demand.

Conquest of Islands of Cyprus, Rhodes and Sicily

During Umar's reign governor of Syria Muawiyah, sent a request to built a naval force to invade the islands in Mediterranean Sea, Umar rejected the purposal because of risk of death of soldiers in sea. During his reign Uthman gave Muawiyah permission to make navy after concerning the matter closely. The Muslim force landed on Cyprus in 649 C.E. There was only a small Byzantine garrison on the island which was overpowered without any difficulty. The islanders submitted to the Muslims, and agreed to pay a tribute of 7,000 dinars per year. The conquest of Cypress was the first naval conquest of the Muslims. After Cyprus Muslim naval fleet headed towards Rhodes islands and conqured them with out much resistance. In 652-654 A.D, Muslims lunched a naval campaign on sicily, they succedded in capturing a large part of sicily (Italy), soon Uthman was murdered and no further expansion was made, and Musims accordingly retreated from Sicily.

Byzantine attempt to re-conquered Syria

After the death of Umar, Byzantine emperor Constantine III decided to re-capture the Levant lost to Muslims during Umar’s reign. Whole scale invasion of Syria was planned, a force of 80,000 soldiers was send to re-captured the Syria, Muawiyah the governor of Syria, called for reinforcement, Uthman orderd the governor of Kufa to send a contingent, the Syrian contingent and that of Kufa defeated the Byzantine army. It was last attempt by Byzantine to re-capture Levant.

Re-Conquest of Armenia and Georgia

Armenia and Georgia was conqured during the reign of Caliph Umar, first under the command of Khalid ibn Walid and Ayadh ibn Ghanam then Habib ibn Muslaimah was sent for a whoe scale invasion upto Black sea. During Uthman’s reign it broke into revolt. Uthman commissioned Habib ibn Muslaimah to re-conquer Armenia and Georgia. The whole of the region was re-conquered. There was not much of fighting, and that on the approach of the Muslim armies, the Armenians laid down arms, and accepted the usual terms of the payment of Jizya (tribute). Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan were made one province under the name Azerbaijan, Ashat ibn Qais was the last governor of this province during Uthman's reign.

Re-conquest of Tartus (Asia Minor) region

The Byzantine forts in Tartus region were conquered during Umar’s reign soon after the Conquest of Antioch by Khalid ibn Walid. During Uthman’s reign the region was recaptured by Byzantine forces and a campaign was undertaken to regain the control of the region. The control of this region became strong after the conquest of Cyprus and Rhodes Islands.

Re-conquest of Fars (Iran)

The province of Fars in Persia was conquered by the Muslims during the caliphate of Umar. In Uthman’s reign like other province of Persia, Fars also broke into revolt. Uthman directed Abdullah ibn Aamir the Governor of Basra to take immediate steps to retrieve the situation. He accordingly marched with a large force to Persepolis; the city surrendered and agreed to pay tribute. From here the army marched to Al j bard, where after a small resistance Muslims captured the city, and citizens agreed to pay tribute. Thereafter the Muslim force advanced to Jor. The Persians gave battle but they were defeated and the city was captured by the Muslims. Peace was made on the usual term of the payment of Jizya. While Muslim army was still in Jor, Persepolis again broke into revolt; Abdullah ibn Aamir took the forces to Persepolis and laid the siege of the city. After a violent battle Muslims were able to regain the control of the city once again, All leaders among the Persians who were guilty of instigating the revolt were hunted out and executed. With the fall of Persepolis, other cities in Fars also submitted unconditionally. Thus the Muslims once again became the masters of Fars. The Uthman’s appointed governor of Fars, after analyzing the situation, sent Islamic missionaries to various cities of the region to convert the people to Islam to avoid the revolt in future, as the causes of revolt was the sprit of nationalism in Persians. A large number of people embraced Islam.

Re-conquest of Sistan (Iran and Afghanistan)

The Persian empire's province of Sistan in 7th century A.D extended from modern days iranian province of Sistan to central Afghanistan and Baluchistan province of Pakistan. Sistan was captured during the reign of Caliph Umar, like other province of Persian empire it also broke into revolt during Uthmans reign in 649 A.D. Uthman directed the governor of Busra, Abdullah ibn Aamir to re-conquer the Persian province of Sistan. A column was sent to Sistan under the command of Rabeah ibn Ziyad. The first confrontation took place at Zaliq a border town, during a festival of Persians, Muslims were victorious. The citizens urged for peace, it is said that the Muslim commander Rabeah ibn Ziyad stuck a pole in the ground and ask Persians to lay a heap of gold and silver up to the top, once it was done Muslims gave peace to all citizens. Qarquqya, five miles from Zaliq was captured with out resistance. After that Muslim forces marched to Zaranj, in modern days south western Afghanistan. After a long siege Zaranj finally surrendered on usually terms of Jizya (tribute). Thereafter Muslims marched north ward in Afghanistan to subjugate rest of the province and the city of Qarbatin was conquered after a battle. Rabeah returned to Zaranj with large number of booty and captives. Rabeah remained the governor of Sistan for two years, then he left for Busra, as soon as he left the province of sistan broke into revolt once again and expelled the successor of Rabeah.

Rashidun Empire at its peak under third Rashidun Caliph, Uthman- 654 A.D

This time after obtaining the approval of Uthman, Abdullah ibn Aamir appointed Abdur Rahman ibn Sumra to command the Muslim forces in the invasion of Sistan. Abdur Rahman b Sumra led the Muslim forces to Sistan and after crossing the frontier and overcoming resistance in the border towns advanced to Zaranj. The old story of siege, blockade and surrender was repeated. Abdur Rahman ibn Sumra made peace on the Persians undertaking to pay an annual tribute of 20 million dirham. The Persians also presented 100,000 slaves. From Zaranj the Muslim force advanced into the interior of Afghanistan, after capturing the main town of Helmand all towns were subjugated. Most of the towns surrendered without offering resistance. Muslims reached the hilltown of Zor, in modern days central Afghanistan. It is said that after capturing the town, Abdulrehman ibn Sumra entered the temple in the town which had a huge idol with eyes of precious stone, he ordered to broke it saying to the priest that he did so to prove that this idol that you people worship is capable of doing nothing, and constructed a mosque on the site of temple. Thereafter Abdulrehman ibn Sumra marched north wards upto the Hindu Kush Mountains in north east and captured Ghazni after some resistance and Kabul with any stiff resistance. After making these conquests Abdur Rahman returned to the provincial capital Zaranj and stayed there as Governor till the end of the caliphate of Uthman.

Re-conquest of Tabaristan (Iran)

Tabaristan lies south of the Caspian sea, it was conquered during the reign of Caliph Umar, under the command of Nuaim ibn Muqarrin’s brother Suwaid ibn Muqarrin. During Uthman’s reign it broke into revolt, Uthman directed Saeed ibn Al Aas the Governor General of Kufa to suppress the revolt. Saeed ibn Al Aas led a strong force of 80,000 warriors to Tabaristan under his personal command. The force included such eminent persons as Abdullah ibn Abbas; Abdullah ibn Umar; Abdullah ibn Zubayr. Muslim forces first entered Qom, which surrendered to Muslims, then advanced to Tamlisa which was a coastal town, it gave stiff resistance to the Muslims after a fierce battle Muslims over powered the city. All the men were slaughtered and women and children were made slaves. The harsh treatment of Muslims with the citizens of Tamlisa, struck terror into the hearts of the people of other towns and they lost the will to resist the Muslims. The Muslim forces thereafter overran Gilan and other parts of Tabaristan. Even the hilly tract which had not been conquered during the caliphate of Umar was brought under Muslim rule. Having reconquerd the whole of Tabaristan Saeed ibn Al Aas planned to march to Khorasan, but when he came to know that Abdullah Ibn Aamir the Governor General of Basra was already in Khorasan, Saeed ibn Al Aas returned to Kufa.

Re-conquest of Azerbaijan and Dagestan

Azerbaijan and Dagestan (Russia) was conquered during the reign of Caliph Umar most of the region surrendered to Muslims with out fight and agreed to pay tribute, later in his reign it broke into revolt and was re-conquered by force, defeating the forces of Persian general Asfandyar and his brother Bahram. During the Caliphate of Uthman, Utba bin Farqad remained the governor of Azerbaijan Province which included modern days Azerbaijan, Georgia, Armenia and Dagestan, it was included in the military dominion of the province of Kufa. When Walid ibn Uqbah became the governor of Kufa he called back Utba bin Farqad, in his absence the province Azerbaijan broke into revolt, Uthman directed Walid ibn Uqba to undertake the campaign to re-conquer Azerbaijan. Walid lunched a two pronged attack on Azerbaijan one from Armenia and the main army under his personal command from Kufa. No pitch battle was fought during the conquest and mostly towns surrendered and agreed to pay tribute of 0.8 million Dirham annually. Ashat ibn Qais was made governor of Azerbaijan.

Re-conquest of Khurassan(Iran,Afghanistan,Turkmenistan)

Khorasan, the province of Persian empire expended from what is now north eastern Iran to western Afghanistan and southern Turkmenistan. It was conquered during the reign of Caliph Umar, under the command of Ahnaf ibn Qais. After the death of Umar, Khorasan broke into revolt under Persian Emperor Yazdegard III, before he could lead the Persians against Muslims, he was betrayed and killed in 651 A.D. Caliph Uthman in 651 A.D, sent Abdullah ibn Aamir the governor of Busra to re-conquere Khorasan. Abdullah ibn Aamir marched with large force from Busra to Khorasan. After capturing the main forts in Khorasan he sent many columns to various direction in Khorasan, the strategy was to avoid the Persians to gather in large force. A town of Bayak in modern days Afghanistan was taken by force, Muslim commander fell fighting in the battle. After Bayak Muslims marched towards Tabisan which was captured after little resistance. Muslim army captured the city of Nishapur after a long siege. Thereafter Muslim army captured other small and bog towns of Khurassan region, after they consolidated there position in Khurassan's most of parts, Muslims marched towards Herat in Afghanistan, which surrendered to Muslims peacefuly. After getting control of that region in modern days Afghanistan Muslims marched to wards city of Merv in modern days Turkmenistan. The city surrendered along with other towns of the region except one, by name Sang, which was later taken by Force. The campaign in Khorasan ended with conquest of Balkh in 654 A.D.

Campaign in Transoxiana

After consolidating the Muslim authority in Khorasan, Abdullah ibn Aamir crossed the Oxus River and invaded Uzbekistan in southern Transoxiana. Details of these campaigns are not known but the source books tell us that a greater part of southern Transoxiana submitted to the suzerainty of the Muslim rule.

Re-conquest of Makran (Pakistan)

Makran was conquered during the reign of Caliph Umar, in 644 A.D when three columns were sent from three different routs to Makran under the command of Hakam ibn Amr, Shahab ibn Makharaq and Abdullah ibn Utban. At western Bank of river Indus they defeated the Hindu King of Sind Raja Rasil, Umar ordered them to consolidate there position on the western bank of river Indus and not to cross the river Indus. During the reign of Caliph Uthman Makran broke into revolt along with other Persian dominions. Uthman sent his commander Ubaidhullah ibn Ma’ mar Tamini to re-conquered Makran along with other adjoining areas of Persia, Islamic army under his command conquered it after series of skirmishing, however no pitch battle was fought. It was in year 650 A.D . Ubaidullah ibn Ma’mar was made first governor of Makran region later he was given governor ship of some other Persian region and was replaced by Umair ibn Usman ibn Saeed, and then Saeed ibn Qandir Qarshi was made Governor who remained governor until Caliph Uthman was murdered.

Conquest of Baluchistan (Pakistan)

What is now Baluchistan province of Pakistan, in 7th century A.D was divided into two main regions, its south western parts were part of Karman province of Persian Empire and north eastern region was part of the Persian province Sistan. The southern region was included in Makran. In early 644 A.D, Caliph Umar sent Suhail ibn Adi from Busra to conquer the Karman region of Iran; he was made governor of Karman. From Karman he entered the western Baluchistan and conquered the region near to Persian frontiers. South Western Baluchistan was conquered during the campaign in sistan the same year. During Caliph Uthman’s reign in 652 A.D, Baluchistan was re-conquered during the campaign against the revolt in Karman, under the command of Majasha ibn Masood, it was first time when western Baluchistan came directly under the Laws of Caliphate and gave tribute on agriculture.In those days western Baluchistan was included in the dominion of Karman. In 654 A.D Abdulrehman ibn Samrah was made governor of Sistan, an Islamic army was sent under him to crush the revolt in Zarang, which is now in southern Afghanistan. Conquering Zarang a column moved north ward to conquer areas upto Kabul and Ghazni in Hindu Kush Mountains, while an other column moved to wards North western Baluchistan and conquered area upto the ancient city of Dawar and Qandabil (Bolan), by 654 A.D the whole of what is now Baluchistan province of Pakistan was under the rule of Rashidun Caliphate except for the well defended mountain town of QaiQan (now Kalat), which was conquered during Caliph Ali’s reign. Abdulrehman ibn Samrah made Zaranj his provincial capital and remained governor of these conquered areas from 654 to 656 A.D, until Uthman was murdered.

Campaign in Sindh (Pakistan)

The province of Sistan was the largest province of Persian Empire its frontiers extended from Sind in east, to Balkh (Afghanistan) in north east. The Islamic conquest of some parts of Sind was extension of the campaign to conquer the Persian empire in 643 A.D by sending seven armies from seven different routs to different parts of empire. Islamic forces first entered Sind during the reign of Caliph Umar, in 644 A.D. It was not a whole scale invasion of Sind but was merely as extension of the conquests of the largest province of Persia Sistan and Makran region. In 644 A.D, the columns of Hakam ibn Amr, Shahab ibn Makharaq and Abdullah ibn Utban concentrated near the west bank of river Indus and defeated the Hindu [[king] of Sind Raja Rasil, his armies retreated and crossed the river Indus. In response of Caliph Umar’s question about the Makran region, the Messenger from Makran who bring the news of the victory told him:

“ 'O Commander of the faithful!

It's a land where the plains are stony; Where water is scanty; Where the fruits are unsavory Where men are known for treachery; Where plenty is unknown; Where virtue is held of little account; And where evil is dominant; A large army is lesser there; And a lesser army is useless there; The land beyond it is even worse (Sindh).

”

Umar looked at the messenger and said: "Are you a messenger or a poet? He replied “Messenger”. Thereupon Caliph Umar, after listening to the unfavorable situations for sending as army instructed Hakim bin Amr al Taghlabi that for the time being Makran should be the easternmost frontier of the Islamic empire, and that no further attempt should be made to extend the conquests. Thereupon on of the commander of Islamic army in Makran said the following verses:

“ If the Commander of faithful wouldn’t have stopped us from going beyond, so we would have bought our forces to the temple of prostitutes ”

Referring to the Hindu Temple in interior Sind where prostitutes use to give a part of there earning as charity.

After the death of Caliph Umar the areas like other regions of Persian Empire broke into revolt and Caliph Uthman sent forces to re-conquer them. Uthman also sent his agent Haheem ibn Jabla Abdi to investigate the matters of Hind, on his return he told Uthman about the cities, listening to the miserable conditions of the region he avoided campaigning in interior Sind and like Caliph Umar he ordered his armies not to cross Indus river.

Agitation Against Uthman

Unlike his predecessor Umar, who maintained discipline with a stern hand, Uthman was lenient and kind hearted man; he focused more on the prosperity of his people. Under Uthman, the people became economically more prosperous and on the political plane they came to enjoy a larger degree of freedom. No institutions were devised to channelize political activity, and in the absence of such institutions, the pre-Islamic tribal jealousies and rivalries which had been suppressed under Islam erupted once again. In view of the democratic and liberal policies adopted by Uthman the liberties allowed to the people soon degenerated into license, and such license became a headache for the State which culminated in the assassination of Uthman. Uthman fell a victim to the tyrannies of his people not because his rule was tyrannical or unjust, but because in advance of his time, he aspired to be kind and liberal in an age suited for an autocratic rule alone. More over the foreign powers became nervous at the success of the Muslim under the leadership of Uthman, and now their only hope lay in aiding and patronizing subversive movements within the territories of Islam. Under such circumstances, leader like Abdullah ibn Saba, felt it to be a nice chance to acomplish there aims of rebellion activities to Islam, aimed at the subversion of Islam by creating doubts among the Muslims with regard to certain matters of their belief and thus disunit them, though the figure Abdullah ibn Saba is belived by Shia Muslims to be an imaginary figure made by Sunni Historians to give an excuse. It is belived that the movement had its links with foreign countries. In lack of any perticular political department to deal with the growing political degree in state, the political leaders or sedition in various towns launched a campaign of vilification against Uthman, initially they started with argues over Uthman's kinsmen who were governors of Egypt, Busra and Kufa, they were supported by the campanions belonged to the camp of Ali, most prominent were Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr and Ammar ibn Yasir, who supported the right of Ali to become caliph as his close relation to Prophet Mohammad, thus the movement had sympathies of the followers of Ali. The campaign was also supported by some campanions who had personal grievance with Uthman, like Amr ibn al-Aas, who was dispossed from the governor ship of Egypt by Uthman, and Uthman's adopted son Muhammad ibn Abu Hudaifah, to whom Uthman denied to appoint as governor of any province. The actual reasion of the seditionist movement is disputed among the Shia and Sunni Muslims.. Many unknown and and anonymous letters were writen to the leading campanions of Prophet Mohammad, complaining against the tyrant rule of the governors of Uthman, more over letters were sent to the leader of public opinion of different provinces under lining the tyrant rule and mis-handling of power by the relatives of Uthman. This created an unrest in the empire and finally Uthman had to investigate the matter to know the authenticity of the rumors. The movement however exploited differences between the Hashimite and Umayyad clans of Quraish. Uthman belonged to Umayyad clan, where as Ali belonged to Hashimite clan.
Sunni Muslims consider these claims over the governors of Uthman who remarkably achived many success during there reign as governor, to be incorrect and nothing more then false claim and a tactic used by seditionists to overthrow the realm of Caliph Uthman by making him lose the control over the main provinces of Egypt, Syria, Kufa and Busra, where as a matter of loyality Uthman had appointed his own kinsmen as governors. On the other hand Shia suggest that these claims were correct and Uthman's kinsmen though achived greater success as governors but failed to lead the people according to the principles of Islam, giving refferences to various early narrations present in primary sources of Islamic history. Sunni reject these narrations, on the basis that there authenticity is disputed.

Uthman's emissaries to the provinces

The situation was becoming tense and it was required to investigate the very roots of the anti-government propaganda and its aims. Some time in around 654 A.D, Uthman called all the governors of his 12 provinces to Madinah to discuss the problem. In this Council of Governors, Uthman directed the Governors that they should adopt all the expedients they had suggested according to local circumstances. Later in the Majlis al Shurah (council of ministry), Uthman was suggested that reliable agents should be deputed to various provinces to investigate the matter and report about the very source of such rumors. Uthman accordingly sent his agents to the main provinces, Muhammad ibn Maslamah was sent to Kufa; Usama ibn Zaid was sent to Basra; Ammar ibn Yasir was sent to Egypt, while Abdullah ibn Umar was sent to Syria. The emissaries who had been deputed to Kufa, Basra, and Syria submitted their reports to Uthman, that all was well in Kufa, Basra and Syria. The people were satisfied with the administration, and they had no legitimate grievance against the administration. Some individuals here and there had some personal grievances of minor character with which the people at large were not concerned, Ammar ibn Yasir the emissary to Egypt, however, did not return to Madinah. The rebels were carried on propaganda in favor of the caliphate of Ali. Ammar ibn Yasir had his affiliations with Ali; he betrayed Uthman and instead joined the opposition in Egypt. Abdullah bin Sa'ad the Governor of Egypt reported about the activities of the seditionist in Egypt. He wanted to take action against Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr(foster son of Ali), Muhammad bin Abi Hudhaifa(adopted son of Uthman) and Ammar ibn Yasir.. Uthman did not want Abdullah bin Sa'ad to be harsh against these persons for whom he had great regard. After the failure of emissary to Egypt, Uthman was watching further develop meets in Egypt.

Uthman's further measures

In 655 A.D, Uthman directed the people who had any grievance against the administration to assemble at Makkah on the occasion of the Hajj. He assured them that all their legitimate grievances would be redressed. He directed the Governors and the "Amils" through out the empire to come to Makkah on the occasion of the Hajj. In response to the call of Uthman, Seditionists came in large delegations from various cities to present there argues before the gathering. On the occasion of Hajj 655 A.D, Uthman addressed the people and gave a long explanation of the criticism over him and his administration and then said:

“ I have had may say. Now I am prepared to listen to you. If any one of you has any legitimate grievance against me or my Government you are free to give expression to such grievance, and I assure you that, I will do my best to redress such grievance. ”

The seditionist realized that the people are in the view of the defense offered by Uthman were not in the mood to listen to them.. That was a great psychological victory for Uthman. It is said according to Sunni Muslims accounts that, Before returning back to Syria, Syrian governor Muawiyah, Uthman’s cousin, suggested Uthman to come with him to Syria as the atmosphere there was peacefull, Uthman rejected his offer saying that he don’t want to leave the city of Prophet Mohammad (reffering to Madinah), Muawiyah gave his second suggestion that Uthman should allow him to sent a strong force from Syria to Madinah to guard the Caliph against any possible attempt by rebels to harm Uthman, Uthman rejected it too saying that the Syrian forces in Madinah would be an incitement to a civil war, and he could not be a part to such a move.

Agitation in Madinah

After the pilgrimage of 655 C.E. things remained quiet for some time. With the dawn of the year 656 A.D Madinah the capital city of Uthman it self became a hot bed of intrigue and unrest. Ammar ibn Yasir and Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr returned to Madinah from Egypt and led a campaign against the Caliphate of Uthman, in Madinah they were joined by Amr ibn al-Aas. When the crisis deepened in Madinah, Uthman addressed the congregation in the Masjid-e-Nabawi and gave explanation of all the claims over him. General public was again satisfied with Uthman. He had hoped that after his speech in which he had explained his position, and offered full defense for his actions, the false propaganda against him would cease. The agitation against Uthman was not being led on the basis of any principles; it was prompted by ulterior motives to overthrow his Government.

Armed revolt against Uthman

As the politics of Egypt figured most in the propaganda against the caliphate, Uthman summoned Abdullah b Sa'ad the Governor of Egypt to Madinah to consult him as to the course of action to be adopted. Abdullah b Sa'ad came to Madina leaving the charge of the affairs in Egypt to his deputy. In the absence of Abdullah b Saad, Muhammad bin Abu Hudhaifa staged a coup d'etat and captured power in Egypt. On hearing of the revolt in Egypt, Abdullah hastened back to Egypt. Uthman was not in the position to give him any military assistance. Abdullah b Sa'ad accordingly failed to recapture power in Egypt In mid of 656 A.D Uthman’s governor of Kufa Abu-Musa al-Asha'ari failed to control the situation. In Basra the Governor Abdullah bin Aamir left for Hajj, and in his absence the affairs of the province fell into a state of confusion. Egypt was already the hot bed of seditionist, thus the three main provinces of Egypt, Kufa, and Basra came to be cut off from the caliphate of Uthman, and became the center of revolt.

Rioters in Madinah

From Egypt contingent of about 1,000 persons was sent to Madinah. Their instructions were to overthrow the government of Uthman, and to murder him. Similar contingents marched from Kufa and Basra to Madina. They sent their representatives to Madina to contact the leaders of public opinion, The representatives of the contingent from Egypt waited on Ali, and offered him the caliphate in succession to Uthman. Ali turned down their offer. The representatives of the contingent from Kufa waited on Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, while the representatives of the contingent from Basra waited on Talha, and offered them their allegiance as the next Caliph. These offers were turned down. This move on the part of the rebels neutralized the bulk of public opinion in Madinah. Madina could no longer offer a united front; it became a divided house. Uthman could enjoy the active support of the Umayyads, and a few other persons in Madinah. The rest of the people of Madinah chose to be neutral and help neither side.

Siege of Uthman

Main article: Siege of Uthman

The situation in Madinah was a big gain for the rebels. When they felt satisfied that the people of Madinah would not offer them any resistance, they entered the city of Madinah and laid siege to the house of Uthman. The rebels declared that no harm from them would come to any person who did not choose to resist them. Uthman strongly instructed his supporters to refrain from violence, his 400 slaves at his palace appealed to grant them permission to fight against the rebels along with thousand other citizens of Madinah, Uthman freed all 400 slaves and ordered them to stay away from civil war between Muslims. When the rebels besieged the house of Uthman, the siege was not severe at the early stage. The rebels merely hovered around the house of Uthman, and did not place any restrictions on the movements of Uthman. Uthman went to the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi as usual, and led the prayers. The rebels offered prayers under the leadership of Uthman. Uthman addressed the people in the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi, Uthman was criticized by seditionist, the supporters of Uthman took up cudgels on behalf of Uthman. Hot words were exchanged between the parties. Tempers flared up on both the sides, and that led to the pelting of stones at one another. One of the stones hit Uthman, and he fell unconscious. Uthman was carried to his house in a state of unconsciousness. The proceedings in the mosque showed to most of the people of Madinah preferred to be neutral and watch developments. When the rebels felt that the people of [[Madinah] were not likely to offer active support to Uthman, they changed their strategy, and tightened the siege of the house of Uthman. Uthman was denied the freedom to move about. He was not allowed to go to the mosque. As days passed on the rebels felt bold, and intensified their pressure against Uthman. They forbade the entry of any food or provisions and later water as well, into the house of Uthman. Umm Habiba, a widow of the Prophet Mohammad, came to see Uthman and brought some water and provisions for Uthman. She was not allowed to enter the house of Uthman. An other widow of holy prophet, and daughter of late Caliph Abu Bakr, Ayesha made a similar attempt, and she was also prevailed upon by the rebels to go back. With the departure of the pilgrims from Madinah to Makkah, the hands of the rebels were further strengthened, and as a consequence the crisis deepened further. The rebels apprehended that after the Hajj, thc Muslims gathered at Makkah from all parts of the Muslim world might march to Madinah to the relief of the Caliph. They therefore decided to take action against Uthman before the pilgrimage was over. During the siege Uthman was asked by his supporters who outnumbered the rebels to let them fight against the rebels and route them, Uthman prevented them from any violence to avoid the blood shed of Muslim by a Muslim. The gates of the palace of Uthman were shut and Guarded by renowned warrior Abdullah ibn Zubayr . Son of Ali bin Abu Talib, Hassan ibn Ali and Hussain ibn Ali were also among those who guarded the gates of palace of Caliph Uthman. There was a skirmish between the rebels and supporters of Uthman at the gate, some rebels were killed in it and rebels were finally pushed back, among the supporters of Uthman, Hasan ibn Ali, Marwan ibn al-Hakam and some other persons were wounded. When Uthman came to know of this action he said:

“ No, I do not want to spill the blood of Muslims, to save my own neck. ”

Death

Finding the gate of palace of Caliph strongly guarded by his supporters, rebels climbed the back wall of the palace and entered inside, the guards on the gate were unaware of what’s going on inside. It is said that Uthman was reading Quran when rebels entered his room and struck blows at the head of Uthman. Naila, wife of Uthman, threw herself on the body of Uthman to protect him.

Uthman was reading Quran when he was assasinated, it is belived that this Quran, present at meuseum in Toshkent, has the blood spots of Uthman

She was pushed aside, and further blows were struck on Uthman till he was dead. The slaves of Uthman fell on the persons whose blows had killed Uthman and killed him. There was some fighting between the rebels and the slaves of Uthman. There were casualties on both the sides, and the rebels looted the house. After the gruesome murder of Uthman, the rioters wanted to mutilate the dead body of Uthman, and were keen that the dead body be denied burial. When some of the rioters came forward to mutilate the dead body of Uthman, his two widows, Nailah and Ramlah bint Sheibah covered the dead body, and raised loud cries which deterred the rioters from pursuing their nefarious design. When the women raised loud lamentations over the dead body of Uthman, the rebels left the house, the supporters of Uthman at gate listened to it and entered the house but it was too late. Thereafter the rioters maintained a presence round the house in order to prevent the dead body from being carried to the graveyard

The funeral

After the dead body of Uthman had been in the house for three days, Naila, Uthman's wife, approached some of Uthman's supporters to help in his burial, but only about a dozen people responded to her call. These included Marwan ibn al-Hakam, Zaid ibn Thabit,'Huwatib bin Alfarah, Jabir bin Muta'am, Abu Jahm bin Hudaifa, Hakim bin Hazam and Niyar bin Mukarram. The dead body was lifted at dusk, and because of the blockade no coffin could be procured. The dead body was not washed, as Islam states that martyrs' bodies are not washed before burial, so Uthman was carried to the graveyard in the clothes that he was wearing at the time of his assassination. According to one account, permission was obtained from Ali to bury the dead body. According to another account, no permission was obtained, and the dead body was carried to the graveyard in secret. Yet a third account states that when the rioters came to know that the dead body was being carried to the graveyard they gathered to stone the funeral, but Ali forbade them to resort to any such act, and they withdrew. Some people say that Ali attended the funeral, but there is however overwhelming evidence to the effect that Ali did not. Naila followed the funeral with a lamp, but in order to maintain secrecy the lamp had to be extinguished. Naila was accompanied by some women including Ayesha, Uthman's daughter.

The burial

The dead body was carried to Jannat al-Baqi, the graveyard of Muslims.

File:Grave of Caliph Uthman-mohammad adil rais.jpg

Grave of Caliph Uthman in Jannat al-Baqi cemetery, Madinah-Saudi Arabia.

It appears that some people gathered there, and they resisted the burial of Uthman in the graveyard of the Muslims. The supporters of Uthman insisted that the dead body would be buried in the graveyard of the Muslims. Those who were opposed to such burial grew in strength, and fearing lest such opposition might take a more ominous turn, the dead body of Uthman was taken to the neighboring graveyard of the Jews Hush Kaukab, and buried there in a hurry. The funeral prayers were led by Jabir bin Muta'am, and the dead body was lowered in the grave without much of ceremony. After burial, Naila the widow of Uthman and Ayesha the daughter of Uthman wanted to speak, but they were advised to remain quiet as danger was apprehended from the rioters.

Family of Uthman

Main article: Family tree of Uthman

Uthman belonged to the Umayyad branch of the Quraish tribe, and was the Prophet Mohammad's nephew. He was the son of Affan ibn Abu al-As and Urwa bint Kariz. Urwa bore only two children from Affan: Uthman and his sister Amna. After the death of Affan, Urwa married Uqba bin Maheet, to whom she bore three sons and a daughter:

• Walid bin Uqba
• Khalid bin Uqba
• Amr bin Uqba
• Umm Kulthum bint Uqba

Before the Islam, Uthman had two wives namely,

• Umm'Amr bint Jandab
• Fatimah bint Al Walid

He had following childerns from them,
From Umm'Amr bint Jandab

• Amr
• Khalid
• Aban
• Umar
• Maryam
  

From Fatimah bint al-Walid

• Walid
• Said
• Umm Said.
  

Amr, was the eldest son of Uthman, and during the pre-Islamic period, Uthman was known by the surname of Abu'Amr.
After his conversion to He was married to

• Ruqayyah bint Muhammad

Prophet Muhammad's daughter. Ruqayyah and Uthman had a son, Abd-Allah ibn Uthman, but he died early, because of him after Islam he was called by the surname Abu'Abdullah.When she died, Uthman was married to her sister,

• Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad, second daughter of Prophet Muhammad. Umm Kulthum bore no child.
  

After the death of Prophet Mohammad's daughters, Uthman married to following women and had following childern from them.

From Fakhta bint Ghazwan

• Abdullah bin Uthman al-asghar, he died in early age.
  

From Umm Al-Nabeen bint Einiyah

• Abdulmalik bin Uthman, he too died in early age.

From Ramla biny Sheibah

• Ayesha bint Uthman
  
• Umm Aban bint Uthman
  
• Umm Amr bint Uthman
  

From Nailah bint Fraizah

• Maryum
  

Legacy

Uthman was the last caliph who could enjoy unity in the Muslim world. Uthman was well known for his generosity. He financed the project for the construction of the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi in Madinah. He purchased the well Beer Rauma in Madinah and dedicated it to the free use of the Muslims, at the time of Prophet Mohammad. Uthman’s generosity continued after he became caliph. Uthman led a simple life even after becoming the Caliph of the Islamic empire, though it would have been easy for a successful businessman such as him to lead a luxurious life. The caliphs were paid for their services from bait al-mal the public treasury but Uthman never took any salary for his service as a Caliph to Islam, he was a rich man he simply dont need it. Uthman also developed a custom to free slaves every Friday, look after widows and orphans, and give unlimited charity. His patience and endurance were among the characteristics that made him a successful leader. He was a devoted Muslim, As a way of taking care of the Prophet Mohammad’s wives, he doubled their allowances. Uthman also built a Place for himself in Madinah, known as Al-Zawar having doors of precious wood, although he made it by his own money, but Shia Muslims consider it his first step to wards ruling like a King..

Sunni view of Uthman

According to the Sunni account of Uthman, he was married to two of Muhammads daughters at separate times, earning him the name Zun-Nurayn or the "Possessor of Two Lights.". In this he was supposed to outrank Ali ibn Abu Talib, who had married only one of Muhammad's daughters.

Sunni Muslims also consider Uthman as one of the ten Sahaba (companions) for whom Muhammad had testified that they were destined for Paradise, and one of the six with whom Muhammad was pleased when he died. He was a wealthy and very noble man. When he became khalifa, he used the same method Umar did.

Shia view of Uthman

According to the Shia view, Uthman is looked at negatively. The Shia do not believe that he was one of the Sahaba's destined to Paradise. Shia's dispute that Uthman's "Possessor of Two Lights" title was to annoy Ali ibn Abu Talib. They also believe that he did not outrank Ali because Ali was married to Muhammad's daughter Fatima Zahra who is considered to be the greatest woman who has ever lived. Fatima Zahra was from Muhammad's first marriage to Khadijah Al-Kubra. During his marriage to Khadijah she was the only wife he had taken and it is during this marriage that Muhammad recieved his first revelation from the Angel Gabriel. Khadijah is the first person in history to embrace Islam along with Ali being one of the first males to embrace Islam. Fatima Zahra and Ali are the parents of Muhammad's beloved grandsons Hassan and Hussien. Muhammad had no sons of his own that lived to be toddlers, Hassan and Hussien are considered to be the "sons" of Muhammad.

Uthman was chosen by a council of six men appointed by the previous Caliph,Umar, whose members (except for Zubair and Ali) were related to Uthman, to succeed Umar as the next Caliph, much to Ali's chargin and protest (quotation needed). He was part of the Bani Ummayah family of which Abu Sufiyan,a villified figure amongst Muslims, was head of. His appointment of family relatives, such as Muawiya and Marwan, to high posts around the Muslim empire and their abuse of wealth and power irked the Ummah. Ali was from Banu Hashim the same family as Muhammad, Muhammad's father Abdu’llah ibn ‘Abdu’l-Muttalib was the brother of Ali's father Abu Talib ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib. When Muhammad was orphaned and then lost his grandfather his uncle took him into his house.

To Shia Muslims Uthman's succession marked the beginning of the Ummayad dynasty, if not the first Ummayad ruler, which they believed to be unjust. Also they believe his succession was the continuation of a leadership usurption that had started from Abu Bakr to Umar to finally Uthman.

Non-Muslims

Bernard Lewis 20th century non-Muslim scholar says of Uthman:

“ Uthman, like Mu'awiya, was a member of the leading Meccan family of Ummaya and was indeed the sole representative of the Meccan patricians among the early companions of the Prophet with sufficient prestige to rank as a candidate. His election was at once their victory and their opportunity. That opportunity was not neglected. Uthman soon fell under the influence of the dominant Meccan families and one after another of the high posts of the Empire went to members of those families.

The weakness and nepotism of Uthman brought to a head the resentment which had for some time been stirring obscurely among the Arab warriors. The Muslim tradition attribute the breakdown which occurred during his reign to the personal defects of Uthman. But the causes lie far deeper and the guilt of Uthman lay in his failure to recognize, control or remedy them. ”

David Samuel Margoliouth 20th century non-Muslim scholar says of Uthman:

“ He was no fighting man, as his subsequent history proved, for he shirked one battlefield, ran away from another, and was killed, priest-like, ostentatiously reading the Koran. ”

E. A. Belyaev the 20th century non-Muslim scholar says of Uthman:

“ Uthman's acquisitiveness and business talents gained full scope when he became caliph. He built himself a stone house in Medina with doors of precious wood and acquired much real estate in that city, including gardens and water sources. He had a large income from his fruit plantations in Wadi-ul-Qura, Hunain and other places, valued at 100,000 dinars, besides large herds of horses and camels on these estates.

Multiplying his riches at the expense of the Moslem treasury, Uthman also gave free use of the latter to some of the closest companions of Muhammad, attempting to justify his illegal actions by associating these most authoritative veteran Moslems with his own depredations. The "companions" applauded the caliph Uthman for his generosity and magnanimity, no doubt for solid reasons of self-interest.

Zubair ibn al-Awwam, for example, one of the better known amongst them, built tenement houses in Kufa, Basra, Fustat and Alexandria. His property was estimated at 50,000 dinars, in addition to which he possessed 1000 horses and 1000 slaves.

Another "companion," Talha ibn Ubaidullah, built a large tenement house in Kufa and acquired estates in Irak which brought in a daily 1000 dinars; he also built a luxurious house of brick and precious wood in Medina.

Abd-ar-Rahman ibn Auf, also an outstanding "companion," also built himself a rich and spacious dwelling; his stables contained 100 horses and his pastures 1000 camels and 10,000 sheep, and one quarter of the inheritance he left after his death was valued at 84,000 dinars.

Such acquisitiveness was widespread among the companions of the Prophet and Uthman's entourage. ”

References

Also:

• Levi Della Vida, G. and R.G. Khoury. "‘Uthmān b. ‘Affān." Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Eds. P.J. Bearman et al. 12 Vols. Brill, 2004. 30 October 2005 <http://www.encislam.brill.nl/>.
• http://www.anwary-islam.com/companion/usman_bin_affan.htm

External links

Views of various Islamic historians on Uthman:

• Uthman in History

Shi'a view of Uthman:

• Uthman's election
• The assassination of `Uthman Ibn `Affan
• Uthman and Abdullah bin Massood

See also

Category:Arab people Category:Rashidun Category:Sahaba Category:580 births Category:656 deaths

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