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Endeavour Hydrothermal Vents

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The temperatures within the Endeavour Hydrothermal Vent fields differs at the various different depths despite some vents being just meters apart. This also has an affect on the different microorganisms and invertebrates that live within the region. In order to best grasp the scale of the EHV region, autonomous vehicles have been deployed to survey the areas and cable systems have been put in place so that that better management practices can be taken. The protected area for the Endeavour Hydrothermal Vents is located on the ridge of the Juan de Fuca plate, and the established zone is 100 km2.[1]

Geology and Geomorphology

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Computer generated image of the Endeavour Hydrothermal Vent (EHV) field chimneys

Hydrothermal vents can sometimes be seen as roughly cylindrical chimney structures. Minerals that are dissolved in the vent fluid give rise to the vents overall structure. This is because minerals precipitate out to produce particles that increase the height of the stacks when the superheated water comes into contact with the sea water that is almost frozen. This can result in the chimney's structure growing up to 60 meters.[2] Only the axial graben and the graben's near rims above the seismically observed magma lens exhibit hydrothermal activity. Main Endeavour has shown very little volcanic activity over the past 4,300 years, and as such, dormant chimneys are not buried as they are on other peaks.[3]

The hydrothermal vents in the area also consist of black and white smoker vents. Black smokers emit black fumes due to being formed from deposits of iron sulfide, whereas white smokers contain barium, calcium, and silicon, and as such emits a lighter-hue of smoke.[4]

Heating and chemistry

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Heat in the Endeavour hydrothermal vents are supplied by the cooling of the Earth's crust in areas of high seismic activity. The water is supplied by the ocean, seeps into the Earth's crust and rises back up out of the surface after it is heated. The hydrothermal fluids come from below the surface of the Earth and rise up above the surface.[5]

Temperature

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Through a combination of targeted, high-temperature (350°C) venting and diffuse, low-temperature (10-25°C) venting, the Main Endeavour field alone produces a total heat flux of 650±100 megawatts (MW). According to their thermal, particle, and chemical anomalies, vent plumes rise 50 to 350 meters above the seafloor to a level of neutral buoyancy. While the plumes rising above the ridge crests are free to drift with the ambient flow, the deeper portions of the plumes may remain stuck inside the valley.[6]

Chemical ecology

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A large, intricate ecology is supported on and below the deep ocean floor by hydrothermal vents connected to the system of global oceanic ridges. Fluids from deep ocean vents have a diverse spectrum of chemical compositions and are frequently enriched in metal sulfides, such as those from iron, copper, calcium, silicon, and zinc as well as metalloids.[7] The cooling and mixing of hot hydrothermal fluids with cold seawater results in the formation of hydrothermal vent deposits on the seafloor. Among the major sulphide and sulphate minerals preserved at vent sites, barite (BaSO 4) is unique in that precipitation requires the direct mixing of Ba-rich hydrothermal fluid with sulfate-rich seawater. Barite crystals retain geochemical fingerprints associated with formation conditions due to their extremely low solubility.[8]

Thermal biology

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The environment of the Endeavour Hydrothermal Vent field experiences extreme temperature ranges of 300°C all the way down to 2°C from even just a few centimetres away. Stressors like elevated acidity, carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfide, anoxia, and metal ions are just a few examples of the extreme conditions in fluid vents. The hydrothermal vents wouldn’t normally be thought of as able to sustain a reliable habitat due to the turbulent nature of the vent fluid. However, researchers have found that the vents are stable for most of the year except for a 40°C temperature spikes in the month of April. Although temperatures this high can be lethal to organisms existing there, habitats there can be stable even at well below preferred temperatures. Researchers have theorized that vent animals have adapted to the rapid change in temperatures and thus are able to live within or near these vents.[9]

Biodiversity

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Researchers have identified 12 unique species to the Endeavour Segment that do not exist anywhere else in the world including the sea spider (Sericosura Venticola). This endemic species is currently classified as imperiled, and is at risk of facing extinction.[10] Many marine mammals, such as Dall’s porpoise, sperm whales, Pacific white-sided dolphins, leatherback sea turtles, and northern elephant seal have also been spotted in the waters where vent fields are located.[11] The organisms at the hydrothermal vent systems range from microorganisms to invertebrates where each have a interchanging role with one another.[12][13]

Microorganisms

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The microbiome population is made up mostly of proteobacteria and archaea. There is limited archaeal diversity, however, as only 12 phylotypes have been detected in the area. All others have been identified as being clones, with Desulfurococcales being the most common clone. Many of the microbes present in this environment have either a sulfur oxidizing or sulfur reducing metabolism, leading to the possibility of sulfur cycling in these areas.[12] Due to the large amount of microbial biomass, vent fields have become a hotspot for viruses.[14] Researchers found that high flow areas were dominated by sulfur and hydrogen oxidizing bacteria, while low flow areas were dominated by heterotrophic bacteria.[13]

Invertebrates

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The main invertebrate found in these areas is the tubeworm (Ridgeia piscesae), which has a “short fat” morphology when it is in high flow areas near the vents, and a 'long skinny' morphology when in low flow areas farther away from the vents.[13] Other invertebrate species recorded are Lepetodrilus, polynoid scaleworms, and Paralvinellae palmiformis that belong to the Alvinellidae family.[9] Furthermore, symbiotic vent bacteria provide nutrients to the animals living there through the process of chemosynthesis since no sunlight reaches the depths of the Endeavour vent fields.[15]

Primary Endeavour Hydrothermal Vents and their distribution with one another

Expeditions and Marine protected area management

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The Endeavour hydrothermal vent fields are under the protection of the Marine Protected Areas (MPA), and was established in 2003 under the Oceans Act because of its diverse and unique biological environment.[1] Under these regulations, activities that pose any harm to vent systems is prohibited. The hydrothermal vent fields—Salty Dawg, High Rise, Main Endeavour, and Mothra—were divided up into four different subfields after being mapped in 1991 despite being discovered in the 1980s.  A fifth vent field, Sasquatch, was later discovered in 2000 and is situated just north of Salty Dawg.[16] Out of these vent fields, Mothra and Main Endeavour are the primary researched and studied fields compared to the other three. On the other hand, Salty Dawg and High Rise are labelled as having the highest precaution, limiting the number of observations and activities that can be done in the fields. The last remaining vent, Sasquatch, as well as other minor vents in the area, has yet to be included into any management plans.[1] Although the vents have been under the MPA's since 2003, a management plan for the fields was only enacted in 2010. The management plan focuses on four specific areas of study by using a "precautionary approach, ecosystem-based approach, adaptive management, and collaboration" as to get the best results.[16]

Since the area is under the protection of the Marine Protected Areas act, any forms of deep-sea mining is prohibited within the area as this could harm the species that currently live there as well damage the hydrothermal vent systems. The area was under the MPA act before any mining could take place within the area. The government of Canada cannot prevent fishing vessels and normal routine traffic from going through the area, however, despite being a Marine Protected Area. This poses a problem because of the risk associated with pollution from the ships, oil spills, and noise that come with them.[17] Any violations of the MPA regulations within the area can face penalties under the Oceans Act, or Fisheries Act depending on the issue.[1]

Autonomous underwater vehicle expeditions

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An unmanned remote-controlled vehicle, MBARI AUV D. Allan B. and other autonomous underwater vehicle's (AUV) revealed that there were 572 hydrothermal sulfide chimneys total, of which only 47 are known to be currently active within the 14 kilometer (8.7 mi) segment of the ridge. The primary data for this research was done by using MBARI AUV D. Allan B.[18]

MBARI AUV D. Allan B deploying off Southern California

First Nations involvement

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During the early 2000s, due to the geographical instabilities, many consultations and workshops were held to discuss and process the designation of the Endeavour Hydrothermal Vent system (EHV) as a MPA. During which time the Central Region Board on Vancouver Island was reached out to for this process. The Central Region Board was made up of all Nuu-chah-nulth First Nations Chiefs as well as representatives from local and regional governments. There were no objections as such from the Board. According to pre-designation presentations to the Central Region Board, there are no substantive First Nation interests in the EHV MPA. However, because the area falls within the statement of intent area of the Nuu-chahnulth Tribal Council (NTC) Treaty claim, the NTC may have an interest in managing the MPA in the future.[1]

Ocean Networks Canada Cabled Observatory in the Hydrothermal Vent system

Cabled observatory

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Although there are five different vent fields that are observed and researched, the NEPTUNE cable observatory only extends from Mothra to Main Endeavour vent fields.[18] Furthermore, the real-time cable system for the Main Endeavour field was only established in 2010 by Ocean Networks Canada (ONC) as part of NEPTUNE, and real-time observing has been continuing since 2011. The installation of this cable was established so that better research opportunities and MPA management can be done.[19]

Scientific discoveries

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  • 2000: Discovery of a fifth vent field, Sasquatch[16]
  • 2008-2011: Discovery of 572 chimneys in the area[18]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b c d e Government of Canada, Public Services and Procurement Canada. "Information archivée dans le Web" (PDF). publications.gc.ca. Retrieved 2022-10-13.
  2. ^ Perkins, Sid (2001-07-14). "New Type of Hydrothermal Vent Looms Large". Science News. 160 (2): 21. doi:10.2307/4012715.
  3. ^ Clague, David A.; Martin, Julie F.; Paduan, Jennifer B.; Butterfield, David A.; Jamieson, John W.; Le Saout, Morgane; Caress, David W.; Thomas, Hans; Holden, James F.; Kelley, Deborah S. (2020). "Hydrothermal Chimney Distribution on the Endeavour Segment, Juan de Fuca Ridge". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 21 (6). doi:10.1029/2020GC008917. ISSN 1525-2027.
  4. ^ Colín-García, María (2016). "Hydrothermal vents and prebiotic chemistry: a review" (PDF). Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana. 68 (3): 599–620. doi:10.18268/BSGM2016v68n3a13.
  5. ^ Kelley, Deborah; Carbotte, Suzanne; Caress, David; Clague, David; Delaney, John; Gill, James; Hadaway, Hunter; Holden, James; Hooft, Emilie; Kellogg, Jonathan; Lilley, Marvin; Stoermer, Mark; Toomey, Doug; Weekly, Robert; Wilcock, William (2012-03-01). "Endeavour Segment of the Juan de Fuca Ridge: One of the Most Remarkable Places on Earth". Oceanography. 25 (1): 44–61. doi:10.5670/oceanog.2012.03. ISSN 1042-8275.
  6. ^ Thomson, Richard E.; Mihály, Steven F.; Rabinovich, Alexander B.; McDuff, Russell E.; Veirs, Scott R.; Stahr, Frederick R. (2003). "Constrained circulation at Endeavour ridge facilitates colonization by vent larvae". Nature. 424 (6948): 545–549. doi:10.1038/nature01824. ISSN 1476-4687.
  7. ^ Rathgeber, Christopher; Yurkova, Natalia; Stackebrandt, Erko; Schumann, Peter; Humphrey, Elaine; Beatty, J. Thomas; Yurkov, Vladimir (2006). "Metalloid Reducing Bacteria Isolated from Deep Ocean Hydrothermal Vents of the Juan de Fuca Ridge, Pseudoalteromonas telluritireducens sp. nov. and Pseudoalteromonas spiralis sp. nov". Current Microbiology. 53 (5): 449–456. doi:10.1007/s00284-006-0320-2. ISSN 0343-8651.
  8. ^ Jamieson, John William; Hannington, Mark D.; Tivey, Margaret K.; Hansteen, Thor; Williamson, Nicole M. -B.; Stewart, Margaret; Fietzke, Jan; Butterfield, David; Frische, Matthias; Allen, Leigh; Cousens, Brian; Langer, Julia (2016-01-15). "Precipitation and growth of barite within hydrothermal vent deposits from the Endeavour Segment, Juan de Fuca Ridge". Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 173: 64–85. doi:10.1016/j.gca.2015.10.021. ISSN 0016-7037.
  9. ^ a b Lee, Raymond W.; Robert, Katleen; Matabos, Marjolaine; Bates, Amanda E.; Juniper, S. Kim (2015-12-01). "Temporal and spatial variation in temperature experienced by macrofauna at Main Endeavour hydrothermal vent field". Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers. 106: 154–166. doi:10.1016/j.dsr.2015.10.004. ISSN 0967-0637.
  10. ^ "NatureServe Explorer 2.0". explorer.natureserve.org. Retrieved 2022-10-13.
  11. ^ Holst, Meike (2017). "Marine Mammal and Sea Turtle Sightings During a Survey of the Endeavour Segment of the Juan de Fuca Ridge, British Columbia". Canadian Field Naturalist. 131 (2): 120–124 – via ResearchGate.
  12. ^ a b Zhou, Huaiyang; Li, Jiangtao; Peng, Xiaotong; Meng, Jun; Wang, Fengping; Ai, Yuncan (2009-06-01). "Microbial diversity of a sulfide black smoker in main endeavour hydrothermal vent field, Juan de Fuca Ridge". The Journal of Microbiology. 47 (3): 235–247. doi:10.1007/s12275-008-0311-z. ISSN 1976-3794.
  13. ^ a b c Forget, Nathalie L.; Kim Juniper, S. (2013). "Free-living bacterial communities associated with tubeworm (Ridgeia piscesae) aggregations in contrasting diffuse flow hydrothermal vent habitats at the Main Endeavour Field, Juan de Fuca Ridge". MicrobiologyOpen. 2 (2): 259–275. doi:10.1002/mbo3.70. ISSN 2045-8827. PMC 3633350. PMID 23401293.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  14. ^ Ortmann, Alice C.; Suttle, Curtis A. (2005-08-01). "High abundances of viruses in a deep-sea hydrothermal vent system indicates viral mediated microbial mortality". Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers. 52 (8): 1515–1527. doi:10.1016/j.dsr.2005.04.002. ISSN 0967-0637.
  15. ^ "Education: Themes: Vent and Volcanoes: Background Information: NOAA Ocean Exploration". oceanexplorer.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2022-10-14.
  16. ^ a b c Menini, Elisabetta; Van Dover, Cindy Lee (2019-10-01). "An atlas of protected hydrothermal vents". Marine Policy. 108: 103654. doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2019.103654. ISSN 0308-597X.
  17. ^ Narwhal, The. "A deepsea 'oasis' is slated to become Canada's biggest protected area". The Narwhal. Retrieved 2022-11-06.
  18. ^ a b c Clague, David A.; Martin, Julie F.; Paduan, Jennifer B.; Butterfield, David A.; Jamieson, John W.; Le Saout, Morgane; Caress, David W.; Thomas, Hans; Holden, James F.; Kelley, Deborah S. (2020). "Hydrothermal Chimney Distribution on the Endeavour Segment, Juan de Fuca Ridge". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 21 (6). doi:10.1029/2020GC008917. ISSN 1525-2027.
  19. ^ Juniper, S. Kim; Thornborough, Kate; Douglas, Karen; Hillier, Joy (2019). "Remote monitoring of a deep‐sea marine protected area: The Endeavour Hydrothermal Vents". Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. 29 (S2): 84–102. doi:10.1002/aqc.3020. ISSN 1052-7613.
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