User:Michaelwilso21/sandbox

1.Historical Climate Information (Use sources in bibliography about Climate) Pollen fossilized in dung midden can provide climate and environmental information Ex: Namib Desert Much is unknown about the origins of the unique biodiversity in the Namib desert. It has an arid climate and granitic substrate, which does not favor the preservation of organic material which would help provide insight into the history of the biodiversity. Common artifacts used to study environmental conditions such as lake or swamp deposits, caves, river systems, or dune-fields do not exist due to local desert conditions and steep gradients. Instead can look at fossil hyrax dung that can be a source of information where sources of proxy information are scarce or non-existent. Accumulate as hard crusts that preserves microscopic remains suchs as pollen grains derived from dust or through the herbivore’s diet. Pollen spectra suggest large differences in vegetation conditions in the Pleistocene and Holocene periods. (1st source) Pollen in dung gives a better understanding of historical environmental changes that led to biodiversity/other present day environments. Additionally pollen data that then gives information on vegetation in different periods can provide information about moisture changes in areas such as the desert of northwest Namibia (3rd source) Increased abundance of Poaceae Ex: Clarens, South Africa (2nd source) Important to consider outside sources of radiocarbon levels in samples when looking at more recent history. Using pollen stratigraphy comparisons with information about artificially increased radiocarbon levels from nuclear arms testing (post 1954) and assuming roughly constant rate of dung accumulation, can look at composition changes. Discovered pollen changes indicating mainly open grass vegetation in the first half of the century and woody vegetation in the second half. Comparing historical events recorded the results suggest that pollen in hyrax dung midden is a good recorder of vegetation change. Importance?

2. Examples of Behavior in Wild The Hippopotamus - Creation of dung middens as part of ritualized behavior between territorial bulls. The further addition of dung tothe piles by passing individuals also helps the individuals communicate and navigate territory. White and Black Rhinoceros - Territorial markings as later desribed in the Wikipedia article with the Marneweck paper but also the behavior of bung beetles that lay their eggs in these midden Black Garden Ants - The first insect in which this behavior was recognized and an important subject through which to understand the development of sanitary behaviors in other animals Dry Bush Weasel Lemur & Southern Gentle Lemur- The use of middens as a way to communicate within families that are spread out over large tracts of land or as communal latrines to mark family territory

3. Evolution Dung middens are a part of antiparasite behavior in some ungulates (Ezenwa). Example given: antelopes use selective foraging and selective defecation to reduce exposure to gastrointestinal parasites. These nematodes are concentrated in higher concentration of faeces (i.e. dung middens). Individuals from these species that practice dung midden strategies avoid feeding near these areas (though this is affected by other ecological factors such as food scarcity, rainfall washing away parasites, and parasitic load).

4. Ecological Implications Intraspecies: Dung middens are used in territorial behavior, as well as sexual signalling. In addition to human usage as a predictor for locations of organisms. Wronski, Attum - gazelles, dung midden and territorial marking Marneweck paper on White Rhinos and the role of dung midden in signalling sex, age, territorial boundaries, and oestrus state. Mountain gazelles: Midden piles are put in predictable places (Attum paper), makes them susceptible to poachers and hunters. This is also an area of concern for conservation. Interspecies: Dung middens are a part of the ecosystem and sometimes needed for Freyman et al. paper on the role of termites in tropic ecosystems and their relationship with dung midden producing animals as an essential decomposer.