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Coordinates: 0°9′S 37°18′E / 0.150°S 37.300°E / -0.150; 37.300
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Mount Kenya
Highest point
Elevation5,199 metres (17,058 ft)
Prominence3,825 m (12,546 ft) Ranked 32nd
ListingSeven Second Summits
Coordinates0°9′S 37°18′E / 0.150°S 37.300°E / -0.150; 37.300
Geography
Map
Location Kenya
Topo map(s)private, Mt Kenya by Wielochowski and Savage
Geology
Mountain typeStratovolcano (extinct)
Last eruption2.6-3.1 Ma
Climbing
First ascent1899 by Halford Mackinder
Easiest routerock climb
Mount
Kenya
History
Geology
Mountaineering
Climate
Ecology
Geography
People
Names list

Mount Kenya is the highest mountain in Kenya and the second highest in Africa, after Kilimanjaro.[1] The highest peaks of the mountain are Batian (5,199 metres (17,057 ft)), Nelion (5,188 metres (17,021 ft)) and Point Lenana (4,985 metres (16,355 ft)). Mount Kenya is located in central Kenya, just south of the equator, around (150 kilometres (93 mi)) north-northeast of the capital Nairobi.[1]

Mount Kenya is a Stratovolcano created appxomiately 3 million years after the opening of the East African rift.[2] It was covered by an ice cap for thousands you years. This has resulted in very eroded slopes[3] and numerous valleys radiating from the centre.[4] There are currently 11 small glaciers. The mountain is an important source of water for much of Kenya.[5]

The volcano was discoved by Europeans in 1849 by Johann Ludwig Krapf,[6] but the scientific community remained skeptical about his reports of snow and ice so close to the equator.[7] The existence of Mount Kenya was confirmed in 1883 and it was first explored in 1887.[8] The summit was finally climbed by a team led by Halford John Mackinder in 1899.[9] Today there are many walking routes, climbs and huts on the mountain.[10]

There are eight distinct vegetation bands from the base to the summit.[11] The lower slopes are covered by different types of forest. Many species are endemic or highly characterestic of Mount Kenya such as the lobelias, the senecios and the rock hyrax.[12] Because of this, an area of 715 km² (276 mi²) around the centre of the mountain is designated a National Park[13] and listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[14] The park receives over 15,000 visitors per year.[5]

Mount Kenya National Park

[edit]
Mount Kenya National Park/Natural Forest
UNESCO World Heritage Site
CriteriaNatural: vii, ix
Reference800
Inscription1997 (21st Session)

Mount Kenya National Park, established in 1949, protects the region surrounding Mount Kenya. Initially is was a forest reserve before being announced as a national park. Currently the national park is within the forest reserve which encircles it.[15] In April 1978 the area was designated a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve.[16] The national park and the forest reserve, combined, became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1997.[17]

The Government of Kenya had four reasons for creating a national park on and around Mount Kenya. These were the importance of tourism for the local and national economies, to preserve an area of great scenic beauty, to conserve the biodiversity within the park, and to preserve the water catchment for the surrounding area.[5]

The national park has an area of 715 km² (276 sq mi), most of which is above the 3000m (10,500 ft) contour line.[5][16] The forest reserve has an area of 705 km² (272 sq mi). Combined this makes the area of the UNESCO World Heritage Site 1,420 km² (548 sq mi).[16]

A small portion of this park's borders near heavy populations have electrified fences to keep the elephants out of the surrounding farmland.[18] Volcanic sediment in the surrounding region's soil and the huge volume of fresh water coming down the slopes makes the area particularly favourable for agriculture.[19]

History

[edit]
Further information: [[:History of Mount Kenya]]

The discovery of Mount Kenya by Europeans was made by Dr Johann Ludwig Krapf on 3rd December 1849.[20] His report was not believed, particularly as no Europeans saw the mountain for another 34 years, despite several visits to the area.[7] In 1883, Joseph Thomson confirmed Krapf's discovery,[21] and over the next few decades several expeditions set out to try to discover more. In 1899, Halford Mackinder made an expedition, which was hampered by difficulties, but succeeded in making the first ascent of Batian.[9] Despite several attempts, there were no more successful attempts on the peaks until Shipton and Wyn Harris in 1929.[22] Since this time there have been many attempts on the peaks, including one by three Italian Prisoners of War in 1942.[23] Current estimates show that 200 people ascend Nelion and 50 ascend Batian annually.[24]

European discovery

[edit]

Mount Kenya was the second of the three highest peaks in Africa to be discovered by Europeans. It was first seen by Dr Johann Ludwig Krapf, a German missionary, from Kitui,[20] a town 160 km (100 miles)[25] away from the mountain. The discovery was made on 3 December 1849,[6] a year after the discovery of Kilimanjaro.

Dr Krapf was told by the Embu tribe that lived around the mountain that they did not ascend high on the mountain because of the intense cold and the white matter that rolled down the mountains with a loud noise. This led him to imply that glaciers existed on the mountain.[20] The Kikuyu confirmed these happenings.

Count Samuel Teleki was the first European to set foot on Mount Kenya. His expedition reached 4,350 m (14,270 ft).

Dr Krapf also noted that the rivers flowing from Mt Kenya, and other mountains in the area, were continuously flowing. This is very different to the usual rivers of the area, which fill in the wet season and dry up completely after the rains have finished. As the streams flow even in the driest seasons he concluded that there must be a source of water up on the mountain, in the form of glaciers.[20] He believed the mountain to be the source of the White Nile.[26]

In 1851 Krapf returned to Kitui. He travelled 40 miles closer to the mountain, but did not see it again. In 1877 Hildebrandt was in the Kitui area and heard stories about the mountain, but also did not see it. Since there were no confirmations to back up Krapf's claim people began to be suspicious.[7]

Evenutally, in 1883, Joseph Thomson passed close by the west side of the mountain and confirmed Krapf's claim. He diverted his expedition and reached 2743 m (9,000 ft) up the slopes of the mountain but had to retreat because of trouble with local tribes.[27] However, the first true exploration of the mountain was achieved in 1887 by Count Samuel Teleki and Ludwig von Höhnel. He managed to reach 4350 m (14,270 ft) on the south western slopes.[8] On this expedition they believed they had found the crater of a volcano.

In 1892 Teleki and von Höhnel returned to the eastern side, but were unable to get through the forest.[27]

Finally, in 1893, an expedition managed to ascend Mount Kenya as far as the glaciers. This expedition was travelling from the coast to the Lake Baringo in the Rift Valley, and was led by Dr John W Gregory, a British geologist. They managed to ascend the mountain to around 4730 m (15,520 ft), and spent several hours on the Lewis Glacier with their guide. On his return to Britain, Gregory published papers and a narrative account of his achievements.[7]

George Kolb, a German physician, made expeditions in 1894 and 1896 and was the first to reach the moorlands on the east side of the mountain. However, far more exploration was achieved after 1899 when the railway was completed as far as the site of Nairobi. Access to the mountain was far easier from here than from Mombasa on the coast.

Mackinder's expedition

[edit]

On 28 July 1899,[9] Sir Halford John Mackinder set out from the site of Nairobi on an expedition to Mt Kenya. The members of the expedition consisted of 6 Europeans, 66 Swahilis, 2 tall Maasai guides and 96 Wakĩkũyũ. The Europeans were Campbell B Hausberg, second in command and photographer, Douglas Saunders, botanist, C F Camburn, taxidermist, Cesar Ollier, guide, and Josef Brocherel, guide and porter.[9]

The expedition made it as far as the mountain, but encountered many difficulties on the way. The country they passed through was full of plague and famine. Many Kĩkũyũ porters tried to desert with women from the villages, others stole from the villages which made the chiefs very hostile towards the expedition. When they reached the base camp on 18 August,[9] they couldn't find any food, had two of their party killed by the native people, and eventually had to send Saunders to Naivasha to get help from Captain Gorges, the Government Officer there.[9]

Mackinder pushed on up the mountain, and established a camp at 3142 m (10,310 ft)[9] in the Höhnel Valley. He made his first attempt on the summit on 30 August with Ollier and Brocherel up the south east face, but they had to retreat when they were within 100 m (yds) of the summit of Nelion due to nightfall.

On 5 September, Hausberg, Ollier and Brocherel made a circuit of the main peaks looking for an easier route to the summit. They could not find one. On 11 September Ollier and Brocherel made an ascent of the Darwin Glacier, but were forced to retreat due to a blizzard.[9]

When Saunders returned from Naivasha with the relief party, Mackinder had another attempt at the summit with Ollier and Brocherel. They traversed the Lewis Glacier and climbed the south east face of Nelion. They spent the night near the gendarme, and traversed the snowfield at the head of the Darwin Glacier at dawn before cutting steps up the Diamond Glacier. They reached the summit of Batian at noon on 13th September, and descended by the same route.[9]





1900-1930

[edit]
Shipton and Russell made the first ascent of Pt John up the south-east gully in 1929

After the first ascent of Mt Kenya there were fewer expeditions there for a while. The majority of the exploration until after the First World War was by settlers in Kenya, who were not on scientific expeditions. A Church of Scotland mission was set up in Chogoria, and several Scottish missionaries ascended to the peaks, including Rev Dr J W Arthur, G Dennis and A R Barlow. There were other ascents, but none succeeded in summitting Batian or Nelion.[22]

New approach routes were cleared through the forest, which made access to the peaks area far easier. In 1920 Arthur and Sir Fowell Buxton tried to cut a route in from the south, and other routes came in from Nanyuki in the north, but the most commonly used was the route from the Chogoria mission in the east, built by Ernest Carr. Carr made possible the building of Urumandi and Top Huts, to a specification given by Arthur and Melhuish.[28]

On 6 January 1929 the first ascent of Nelion was made by Percy Wyn-Harris and Eric Shipton. They climbed the Normal Route, then descended to the Gate of Mists before ascending Batian. On the 8 January they reascended, this time with G A Sommerfelt, and in December Shipton made another ascent with R E G Russell. They also made the first ascent of Point John. During this year the Mountain Club of East Africa was formed.[29]

At the end of July 1930, Shipton and Bill Tilman made the first traverse of the peaks. They ascended by the West Ridge of Batian, traversed the Gate of Mists to Nelion, and descended the Normal Route. During this trip, Shipton and Tilman made first ascents of other peaks, including Point Peter and Midget Peak.[22][29]

1931 to present day

[edit]

In the early 1930s there were several visits to the moorlands around Mt Kenya, with fewer as far as the peaks. Raymond Hook and Humphrey Slade ascended to map the mountain, and stocked several of the streams with trout. By 1938 there had been several more ascents of Nelion. In February Miss C Carol and Mtu Muthara became the first woman and African respectively to ascend Nelion, and on 5 March Miss Una Cameron became the first woman to ascent Batian.

During the Second World War there was another drop in ascents of the mountain. Perhaps the most notable of this period is that of three Italian Prisoners of War, who were being held in Nanyuki, and escaped to climb the mountain before returning to the camp and "escaping" back in. No Picnic on Mount Kenya tells the story of the prisoners' exploit.[23]

In 1949 the Mountain Club of Kenya split from the Mountain Club of East Africa, and the area above 3,400 m (11,150 ft) was designated a National Park.[29] A road was built from Naro Moru to the moorlands allowing easier access.

Many new routes were climbed on Batian and Nelion in the next three decades, and in October 1959 the Mountain Club of Kenya produced their first guide to Mount Kenya and Kilimanjaro.[30] In the early 1970s the Mount Kenya National Park Mountain Rescue Team was formed, and by the end of the 1970s all major routes on the peaks had been climbed.[30]

In 1997 Mount Kenya was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[17]

On July 19 2003, a South African registered aircraft, carrying 12 passengers and two crew, crashed into Mount Kenya at Point Lenana: nobody survived.[31][32][33] This was not the first aircraft lost on the mountain; there is also the wreckage of at least one helicopter that crashed before 1972.[34]

Geology

[edit]
Further information: [[:Geology of Mount Kenya]]

Mountaineering

[edit]
Further information: [[:Mountaineering on Mount Kenya]]

Mount Kenya National Park receives 15,000 visitors every year.[5] The aim of the majority of these visitors is to trek up Point Lenana(4,985m - 16,355 ft), the third highest peak and the highest point on the mountain that can be gained without technical climbing.[citation needed] A few visitors walk on the moorlands lower on the mountain, and others ascend to the peaks for technical climbing.

Walking routes

[edit]

There are eight walking routes up towards the main peaks. Starting clockwise from the north these are the: Meru, Chogoria, Kamweti, Naro Moru, Burguret, Sirimon and Timau Routes.[10] Of these Chogoria, Naro Moru and Sirimon and used most frequently and therefore have staffed gates. The other routes require special permission from the Kenya Wildlife Service to use.[24]

Chogoria Route

[edit]
The Gorges Valley is a major feature on the Chogoria Route.

This route leads from Chogoria town up to the peaks circuit. It is possible to travel the 32 km (20 miles) to the gate by vehicle, and a further 8 km (5 miles) to the trackhead from which you have to walk.

The path crosses the Nithi River and follows the ridge above the Gorges Valley towards the main peaks. The next camp is at Hall Tarns, which are situated above The Temple; a 300 m (1,000 ft) cliff into the valley below[29]. The path continues up across the moorland towards the Peak Circuit Route. Here it is possible to head west to Simba Col and Shipton's Camp, or south west to Square Tarn and Austrian Hut.

The Chogoria Route is seen as one of the most scenic routes on the mountain. There are no huts between the park gate and the peak circuit, so it is necessary to camp.

Naro Moru Route

[edit]
Vertical bog on Mount Kenya on the Naro Moru Route

This route is taken by many of the trekkers who try to reach Point Lenana. It can be ascended in only 3 days and has bunkhouses at each camp so a tent is not necessary. The terrain is usually good, although one section is called the Vertical Bog.

The track starts in Naro Moru town and heads past the Park Headquarters up the ridge between the Northern and Southern Naro Moru Rivers. At the roadhead is the Meteorological Station, to which it is possible to drive in the dry season. The route drops down into the Northern Naro Moru Valley to Mackinder's Camp on the Peak Circuit Path.

Sirimon Route

[edit]

This route starts 15 km (9 miles) east around the Mount Kenya Ring Road from Nanyuki. The gate is 10 km (6 miles) further along the track, which can be walked or driven by two-wheel drives.[29]

The track climbs up through the forest to Old Moses Hut where it becomes a path. This continues up the hill before splitting into two routes. The least used route goes around the side of the Barrow to Liki North Hut. It climbs over several ridges, before rejoining the main path ascending the Mackinder Valley.

Peak Circuit Path

[edit]

This is a path around the main peaks, with a distance of about 10 km (6 miles) a height gain and loss of over 2000 m (6,600 ft). It can be walked in one day, but more commonly takes two or three. It can also be used to join different ascent and descent routes. The route does not require technical climbing.[30]

Climbing routes

[edit]

Most of the peaks on Mount Kenya have been summited. The majority have rock climbs as their easiest ascent route, but some can be walked or scrambled up.

Batian and Nelion can be climbed in both dry seasons. They have routes on their north and south faces. Two of the most popular are the Normal Route up Nelion and the North Face Standard Route up Batian. Other peaks which are commonly climbed include Pt Peter, Pt John and Pt Pigott.

A few peaks do not require rock climbing to ascend. These include Krapf Rognon and Pt Thompson.[29]

Huts

[edit]

Caretakers are present at most huts,[24] but not all. The huts range from very basic (Liki North) with little more than a roof, to luxurious with log fires and running water (Meru Mt Kenya Lodge). Most huts have no heat or light, but are spacious with dormitories and communal areas. They also offer separate accommodation for porters and guides. The communal areas of the huts can be used by campers wishing to retreat from the weather or to store food away from the hyaena and hyraxes.

  • The Austrian Hut sleeps 30 in 3 dormitories. It is situated near the Lewis Glacier at 4790 m (15,715 ft) and makes a good base for climbing Point Lenana or exploring the nearby peaks.
    The Austrian Hut sleeps 30 in 3 dormitories. It is situated near the Lewis Glacier at 4790 m (15,715 ft) and makes a good base for climbing Point Lenana or exploring the nearby peaks.
  • Liki North Hut is a small bothy that sleeps 8 and provides little more than shelter.
    Liki North Hut is a small bothy that sleeps 8 and provides little more than shelter.
  • Shipton's Camp is one of the larger huts on the mountain. It is close to the little climbed Terere and Sendeyo, which are seen in the background.
    Shipton's Camp is one of the larger huts on the mountain. It is close to the little climbed Terere and Sendeyo, which are seen in the background.

Climate

[edit]
Further information: [[:Climate on Mount Kenya]]

Ecology

[edit]
Further information: [[:Ecology of Mount Kenya]]

Mount Kenya has several distinct ecological zones, between the savanna surrounding the mountain to the nival zone by the glaciers. Each zone has a dominant species of vegetation. Many of the species found higher up the mountain are endemic, either to Mount Kenya or East Africa, and are highly specialised[citation needed].

There are also differences within the zones, depending on the side of the mountain and aspect of the slope. The south-east is much wetter than the north, so species more dependent on moisture are able to grow. Some species, such as bamboo, are limited to certain aspects of the mountain because of the amount of moisture[citation needed].

Zones

[edit]
The edges of the forest around Mount Kenya can be clearly seen from space. Valleys radiate out from the central peaks which are white with snow in the nival zone.

The climate of Mount Kenya changes considerably with altitude. Around the base of the mountain is fertile farmland. The tribes living around the mountain have cultivated this cool relatively moist area for centuries[35].

Mount Kenya is surrounded by forests. The vegetation in the forests depend on rainfall, and the species present differ greatly between the northern and southern slopes[citation needed]. As time has passed the trees on the edge of the forest have been logged and the farmland has encroached further up the fertile slopes of the mountain[citation needed].

Above the forest is a belt of bamboo. This zone is almost continuous, but is unable to grow in the north because there is not enough rainfall. The bamboo is entirely natural[citation needed], and prevents many animals from living further up the mountain. Tracks are common through the bamboo. They are made by large animals such as elephants and buffalo when they fight their ways higher[citation needed]. They do not spend long within the bamboo as it is all inedible except for tender new shoots[citation needed]. Bamboo suppresses other vegetation, so it is uncommon to find trees or other plants here[citation needed].

The timberline forest is commonly in cloud[citation needed]. The trees are relatively small and covered in lichens[citation needed].

Above the bamboo is the timberline forest. The trees here are often smaller than the trees in the forests lower down the mountain. The forest here is more natural, as few people used to climb through the bamboo to fell these trees[citation needed].

When the trees can no longer grow the vegetation changes into heathland and chaparral. Heathland is found in the wetter areas, on the west side of Mount Kenya, and is dominated by giant heathers[citation needed]. Chaparral is found in the drier areas and grasses are more common[citation needed]. The ground here is often waterlogged, but bush fires are still frequent[citation needed].

As the altitude increases the temperature fluctuations become extreme and the air becomes thinner and drier. This region is known as the Afro-alpine zone. The environment here is very isolated, with the only similar area nearby being the Aberdares, which are 80 km (50 miles) away[27]. Many of the species here are endemic, with adaptations to the cold and fluctuating temperatures[citation needed]. Typical plants here include giant groundsels (senecios) and giant lobelias[citation needed].

The region where the glaciers have recently retreated from is nival zone. It is the area that plants have not yet been able to colonise. On Mount Kenya this zone is not continuous as the glaciers are no longer continuous[27].

Flora

[edit]
Many plants that live on Mount Kenya, like this Senecio keniodendron, have to be specially adapted to the extremes in temperature.

The flora found on Mount Kenya varies with altitude, aspect and exposure, but very little with seasons. Lower down the mountain the air contains more moisture and oxygen, and the temperature is warm all year. As the altitude increases, the plants have to be more specialised, with adaptations to strong sunlight, little oxygen and freezing night temperatures.

Plants in the Afro-alpine zone have overcome these difficulties in several ways. One adaptation is known as the giant rosette, which is exhibited by giant senecio, lobelia and giant thistle (Carduus)[citation needed]. These plants have specialist ways of retaining water in the dry air, as well as preventing the water freezing overnight[citation needed]. They also use dead leaves or hairs to protect their buds from freezing[citation needed]. Another adaptation is to flower simultaneously[citation needed]. Plants in cold temperatures do not grow fast, so it is impossible to flower every year. By synchronising their flowering they increase their chances of pollination[citation needed].

Many plants in the Afro-alpine zone of Mount Kenya tend to be large. This is an adaptation against the cold[citation needed]. However, nearer the nival zone the plants decrease in size again, as there are not enough resources, including warmth, to allow them to grow any larger[citation needed].

Fauna

[edit]
Safari ants swarm around the forest in long columns. They are easiest to see when they cross the tracks.

The majority of animals live lower down on the slopes of Mount Kenya. Here there is more vegetation and the climate is less extreme. Various species of monkeys, several antelopes, tree hyrax, porcupines and some larger animals such as elephant and buffalo all live in the forest[citation needed]. Predators found here include hyena and leopard, and occasionally lion[10].

No animals live permanently in the bamboo zone, although several cross it to access the higher zones of the mountain[citation needed].

Hyrax are able to cope with a more extreme climate and are found up to the highest vegetation.

There are few mammals found at high altitudes on Mount Kenya. The Mount Kenya hyrax and common duiker are able to live here, and are very important to the ecosystem. Some smaller mammals, such as the groove-toothed rat, can live here by burrowing into the giant senecios and using their thick stem of dead leaves as insulation[citation needed]. A few larger mammals occasionally visit these altitudes. A leopard skeleton was reported to be found at ______ m (____ ft)[citation needed], and other sightings are remembered in names such as Simba Tarn (simba means lion in Swahili)[citation needed]. However, there is not enough prey to allow these animals to live here permanently.

Birds are more common than mammals in the Afro-alpine zone, with many species of sunbirds, alpine chats and starlings resident here as well as some of their predators; the auger buzzard, lammergeier and Verreaux eagle. Birds are important in this ecosystem as they pollinate many plants[36].

Geography

[edit]
Further information: [[:Geography of Mount Kenya]]

Local culture

[edit]
Further information: [[:People of Mount Kenya]]

Names

[edit]
Further information: [[:List of names]]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference roughguide was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  2. ^ Cite error: The named reference rift was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  3. ^ Cite error: The named reference contributions was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  4. ^ Cite error: The named reference baker was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  5. ^ a b c d e Cite error: The named reference development was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  6. ^ a b Dutton, E.A.T. (1929). Kenya Mountain. London: Charles Whittingham and Griggs.
  7. ^ a b c d Gregory, John Walter (1968). The Great Rift Valley. London: Frank Cass & Co. Ltd.
  8. ^ a b von Höhnel, Lieutenant Ludwig (1894). Discovery of Lakes Rudolf and Stefanie. London: Longmans. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h i Mackinder, Halford John (May 1900). "A Journey to the Summit of Mount Kenya, British East Africa". The Geographical Journal. 15 (5): 453–476. doi:10.2307/1774261. JSTOR 1774261. Retrieved 2007-05-28.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  10. ^ a b c Mt Kenya 1:50000 Map and Guide (Map) (1 ed.). 1:50000 with 1:25000 inset. Cartography by West Col Productions. Andrew Wielochowski and Mark Savage. 1991. ISBN 0-906227-39-9.
  11. ^ Cite error: The named reference kirinyaga was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  12. ^ Cite error: The named reference coe was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  13. ^ Cite error: The named reference UICN was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  14. ^ Cite error: The named reference UNESCO was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  15. ^ Kenya Wildlife Service (2007). "Mount Kenya National Park". Archived from the original on 2007-06-22. Retrieved 2008-02-23.
  16. ^ a b c United Nations Environment Programme (1998). "Protected Areas and World Heritage". Archived from the original on 2007-02-12. Retrieved 2008-02-23.
  17. ^ a b United Nations (2008). "Mount Kenya National Park/Natural Forest". Archived from the original on 2006-12-30. Retrieved 2008-02-23. Cite error: The named reference "unesco" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  18. ^ Ojany, Francis (August 1993). "Mount Kenya and its Environs: A review of the interaction between mountain and people in an equatorial setting". Mountain Research and Development. 13 (3). International Mountain Society: 305–309. doi:10.2307/3673659. JSTOR 3673659. Retrieved 2007-05-25.
  19. ^ Speck, Heinrich (1982). "Soils of the Mount Kenya Area: Their formation, ecology, and agricultural significance". Mountain Research and Development. 2 (2): 201–221. doi:10.2307/3672965. JSTOR 3672965.
  20. ^ a b c d Krapf, Johann Ludwig (1860). Travels, Researches, and Missionary Labours in Eastern Africa. London: Frank Cass & Co. Ltd.
  21. ^ Thomson, Joseph (1968) [1885]. Through Masai Land (3 ed.). London: Frank Cass & Co Ltd.
  22. ^ a b c Shipton, Eric (1985) [1943]. Upon That Mountain. The Six Mountain Travel Books. Foreword by Geoffrey Winthrop Young. London: Diadem Books. ISBN 0-906371-56-2.
  23. ^ a b Benuzzi, Felice (2005). No Picnic on Mount Kenya: A Daring Escape, a Perilous Climb. The Lyons Press. ISBN 978-1592287246.
  24. ^ a b c Kenya Wildlife Service (2006), Mount Kenya Official Guidebook, Kenya Wildlife Service
  25. ^ Rough Guide Map Kenya (Map) (9 ed.). 1:900,000. Rough Guide Map. Cartography by World Mapping Project. Rough Guide. 2006. ISBN 1-84353-359-6.
  26. ^ Krapf, Johann Ludwig (13th May 1850). "Extract from Krapf's diary". Church Missionary Intelligencer. i: 345. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  27. ^ a b c d Coe, Malcolm James (1967). The Ecology of the Alpine Zone of Mount Kenya. The Hague: Dr W. Junk.
  28. ^ Arthur, J.W. (September 1923). "A Sixth Attempt on Mount Kenya". The Geographical Journal. 62 (3): 205–209. doi:10.2307/1780659. JSTOR 1780659.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  29. ^ a b c d e f Allan, Iain (1981). The Mountain Club of Kenya Guide to Mount Kenya and Kilimanjaro. Nairobi: Mountain Club of Kenya. ISBN 978-9966985606.
  30. ^ a b c Burns, Cameron (1998). Kilimanjaro & Mount Kenya; A Climbing and Trekking Guide. Leicester: Cordee. ISBN 1-871890-98-5.
  31. ^ Charter aircraft crashes into Kenya's Mount Kenya., Airline Industry Information, 21 July 2003
  32. ^ Rescue teams resume efforts to recover bodies of those killed in charter aircraft crash, Airline Industry Information, 23 July 2003
  33. ^ "Aviation Safety Network". Retrieved 2008-08-25.
  34. ^ "Aircraft flown off Mount Kenya". News. The Times. No. 49451. London. Jan 23 1943. col C, p. 3. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help) template uses deprecated parameter(s) (help)
  35. ^ Castro, Alfonso Peter (1995). Facing Kirinyaga. London: Intermediat Technology Publications Ltd. ISBN 1-85339-253-7.
  36. ^ Smith, Alan P. (1987). "Tropical Alpine Plant Ecology". Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 18: 137–158. doi:10.1146/annurev.es.18.110187.001033. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
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