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Rufous-brown solitaire
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Passeriformes
Family: Turdidae
Genus: Cichlopsis
Cabanis, 1851
Species:
C. leucogenys
Binomial name
Cichlopsis leucogenys
Cabanis, 1851
Synonyms

Myadestes leucogenys Cabanis, 1851

The rufous-brown solitaire (Cichlopsis leucogenys) is a species of bird in the family Turdidae. It is found in Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forest and subtropical or tropical moist montane forest.

Taxonomy and systematics

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at Amagusa Reserve.

German ornithologist Jean Cabanis first described the rufous-brown solitaire in 1851,[2] from a specimen collected in Brazil. It was originally thought to be closely related to solitaires in the genus Myadestes, and some taxonomists included it in that genus as recently as the late 1980s.[3] However, though these genera are morphologically similar, genetic studies have since shown they are only distantly related. Instead, those studies show that Cichlopsis is most closely related to the solitaires of the genus Entomodestes, and that both of these genera fit comfortably into a New World thrush clade also comprised of Catharus, Hylocichla, Ridgwayia and Ixoreus.[4]

There are four subspecies, which are quite similar in appearance,[5] but disjunct in population — sometimes by considerable distances. Some authorities, including the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and BirdLife International, consider the subspecies to be distinct species.[6][7]

  • C. l. leucogenys, the nominate subspecies described by Cabanis in 1851, is found only in the states of Bahia, Espírito Santo and Minas Gerais in eastern Brazil.[8][9] Some authorities consider this to be the only rufous-brown solitaire.[10]
  • C. l. gularis, described in 1882 by English ornithologists Osbert Salvin and Frederick DuCane Godman,[8] is found in several disjunct populations from southeastern Venezuela to Suriname. Some authorities consider it to be a distinct species, the Guianan solitaire.[11]
  • C. l. chubbi, described by American ornithologist Frank Chapman in 1924,[8] is found on the western slopes of the Andes in southwestern Colombia and northwestern Ecuador. Some authorities consider it to be a distinct species, the chestnut-throated solitaire.[12]
  • C. l. peruvianus, described by Austrian ornithologist Carl Eduard Hellmayr in 1930,[8] is found only on the eastern slopes of the Andes in central Peru, in the departments of Huánuco, Pasco, and Junín. Some authorities consider it to be a distinct species, the Peruvian solitaire.[13]

The genus name Cichlopsis comes from the Greek: κίχλη, romanized: kikhlē, meaning "thrush" and the Greek: ὄψισ, romanized: opsis, meaning "look"[2] or "appearance".[14] The species name leucogenys derives from the Greek leukos meaning "white" and genus meaning "cheek".[14] Solitaires get their name from their solitary habits.[15]


  • EXPLAIN DIFFERENCES IN DESCRIPTION DATES – 1850 vs 1851
  • HAS ITS SCIENTIFIC NAME CHANGED? IF SO, WHAT WERE OTHERS?
  • WAS IT SPLIT INTO A DIFFERENT GENUS BASED ON MORPHOLOGY? IF SO, WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENCES THAT LED TO THIS?
  • ADD THE (MANY) SYNONYMS TO TAXOBOX.

Description

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The rufous-brown solitaire is a medium-sized thrush, measuring 20–21 cm (7.9–8.3 in) in length,[nb 1] and weighing 45–61 g (1.6–2.2 oz).Cite error: The <ref> tag has too many names (see the help page).[5] The sexes are alike in appearance.[5] Slender and long-tailed, the bird is rufous-brown overall, darkest on the upperparts with a paler cinnamon to rufous throat, a pale gray-brown belly, and buff to pale orangish undertail coverts.[17]Cite error: The <ref> tag has too many names (see the help page). The outer feathers of its rufescent brown tail are edged with paler rufous. It is quite plain, with little in the way of field marks. Males show a narrow and inconspicuous yellow eye-ring, which is lacking in females.[3] The small, bicolored bill is dark gray to black on the upper mandible and pale yellow to orange on the lower mandible.[3][17]Cite error: The <ref> tag has too many names (see the help page).

  • LEGS? EYES? BILL SHAPE? REMEMBER TO MENTION SHORT LEGS.
  • CHECK THRUSHES book, plus FGs to Brazil, Columbia, Ecuador, Peru, Suriname and Venezuela; also HBW & general SA tomes
  • IS WINGSPAN AVAILABLE?

Similar species

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Some female Turdus thrushes are similarly plumaged, but they are larger and stockier, with streaked throats, and undertail coverts which are similar in color the rest of their plumage.[3] Rufous piha and rufous mourner are other potential confusion species which are found in similar habitats.[18]

  • FG to SURINAME and FG to VENEZUELA list female Turdus thrushes.

Voice

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Songs and calls
Listen to the rufous-brown solitaire on xeno-canto

The rufous-brown solitaire is heard much more frequently than seen.[18] It sings primarily in the early morning, and only seasonally, principally during the rainy season. Its song, which is less musical and less complex than that of other solitaires,[5] is short, varied, and often loud, given at brief intervals.[3] Bursts of song are interspersed with short pauses, and song phrases are varied and not soon repeated.[19] The bird sings from a concealed perch at low to medium height, often raising or fluttering its wings while singing.[5]

The song of C. l. gularis, the subspecies in Venezuela, Guyana and Suriname, is described as squeaky and chattery, with a complex mix of chips, buzzes, and trills interspersed with more melodic elements.[3] Its call is a faint, high-pitched "eeeeeee", given at 3–5 second intervals for as much as a minute or more.[3] The song of C. l. chubbi, the subspecies in Colombia and Ecuador, is a short series of sweet whistles and warbles, transcribed by one source as fu-fwee-yerr-twidl'dee-dee.[19] Its descending call is high-pitched and slightly trilled, transcribed in one source as "tseeeeu".[20] The song of the Brazilian subspecies, C. l. leucogenys is a complex 2 to 3-second burst of sounds: quick, repeated sounds like an inhaled "fff", single "tjuw" and "tjeeh" notes, very high-pitched "see" notes and various trills and rattles followed by a 1-1.5 second pause before the next completely different arrangement of notes.Cite error: The <ref> tag has too many names (see the help page). Its high-pitched calls are variously described as a hissing "tsueeee", a weak, penetrating "tsrreeeee" and a loud whistled "sueeeet".[20][21] The songs and calls of Peru's C. l. peruviana are unknown.[20]

Habitat and range

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The rufous-brown solitaire is thought to be an uncommon to rare breeding resident throughout its range. However, given that it occasionally becomes common for short periods of time in parts of Venezuela, it may undergo short-distance seasonal or elevational movements.[3]

In Suriname, it is thought to be a breeding resident. There, it is uncommon, known only from the Wilhelmina and Tafelberg Mountains in the Sipaliwini District, where it occurs in dry highland forests above 500 m (1,600 ft).[17] In Guyana, it is restricted to the tepuis of the country's northwest, though it has also been recorded once in the Iwokrama Mountains.[22] In Peru, it is known from only four localities: Cerros del Sira in the eastern Andes, near the Perené River in Junín Province, on Abra Aguachine, and at Cacazu;[23] the elevations at which it has been found in Peru range from 690 to 1,570 m (2,260 to 5,150 ft) asl.[24] In Ecuador, where it is rare to locally uncommon, it is resident in humid foothills and subtropical forest of the country's northwest, at elevations ranging from 600 to 1,500 m (2,000 to 4,900 ft).[19] In Venezuela, it is a rare to uncommon resident in mountains and tepuis in southeastern Bolívar at elevations ranging from 900 to 1,450 m (2,950 to 4,760 ft) asl. It occurs in wet and humid forests, and dense secondary growth, often venturing to forest edge to feed at fruiting melastomes.[3] In Brazil, it is resident primarily in the states of Bahia and Espírito Santo, with a very few records in neighboring Minas Gerais. It occurs in a narrow slice of the Atlantic Forest in both primary and advanced second-growth forest, generally at elevations between 500 and 700 m (1,600 and 2,300 ft); however, it has been recorded at elevations as low as 45 m (148 ft), and may be less restricted to mountain environments than are other subspecies.[9]

  • COLOMBIA? WHAT HABITATS? RESIDENT OR MIGRANT?

Behavior

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The rufous-brown solitaire is generally a solitary bird.[3] It is strictly arboreal,[20] spending most of its time at mid-level or higher in the forest interior. It alternates between quiet rest and active foraging, with the latter most frequent when mixed flocks containing frugivores, such as tanagers and manakins, are present.[3] It tends to perch more uprightly than do similarly-plumaged female Turdus thrushes[19], but more horizontally than do the Myadestes solitaires.[3] It is shy and rarely encountered away from fruiting trees.[19]

Feeding

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It feeds at fruiting trees and shrubs, particularly those in the family Melastomataceae. It plucks fruits either from a perched position or from the air in short, sallying flights.[3] It forages primarily in the undergrowth and sometimes in leaf litter on the ground.[5]

Breeding

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Almost nothing is known about the rufous-brown solitaire's breeding biology. Its nest, based on the single one ever found, is cup-shaped and built well off the ground in the fork of a tree.[5]

Conservation and threats

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All subspecies of the rufous-brown solitaire are declining; the IUCN considers three subspecies to be near threatened and the fourth to be endangered.[6] Among the primary threats they face is the degradation and loss of their forest habitat, as growing human populations expand and deforestation results.[25] Small and large-scale logging, and the conversion of forest to agricultural use also affect them.[26]

Notes

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  1. ^ By convention, length is measured from the tip of the bill to the tip of the tail on a dead bird (or skin) laid on its back.[16]

References

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  1. ^ BirdLife International (2020). "Cichlopsis leucogenys". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020.1. 2020. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help) {{cite iucn}}: error: no identifier (help)
  2. ^ a b https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/196124#page/70/mode/1up
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Hilty, Steven L. (2003). Birds of Venezuela. London, UK: Christopher Helm. pp. 705–6. ISBN 978-0-7136-6418-8.
  4. ^ Klicka, John; Voelker, Gary & Spellman, Garth M. (March 2005). "A molecular phylogenetic analysis of the "true thrushes" (Aves: Turdinae)" (PDF). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 34 (3): 486–500.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g Clement, Peter; Hathaway, Ren (2000). Thrushes. London, UK: Christopher Helm. pp. 292–293. ISBN 978-0-7136-3940-7.
  6. ^ a b "Search for Cichlopsis". International Union for the Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 17 April 2020.
  7. ^ "Data Zone: Search Cichlopsis". BirdLife International. Retrieved 17 April 2020.
  8. ^ a b c d "ITIS Report: Cichlopsis leucogenys". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 17 April 2020.
  9. ^ a b Vogel, Huilquer Francisco; Bernardon, Manoele Marcolin & Zawadzki, Claudio Henrique (July 2017). "Distribution of Cichlopsis leucogenys (Aves: Turdidae) in Brazil and its relation to protected areas" (PDF). Bioveritas. 18 (3): 1116–1121. doi:10.13057/biodiv/d180332.
  10. ^ "Rufous-brown Solitaire". Handbook of Birds of the World Alive. Retrieved 18 April 2020.
  11. ^ "Guianan Solitaire". Handbook of Birds of the World Alive. Retrieved 17 April 2020.
  12. ^ "Chestnut-throated Solitaire". Handbook of Birds of the World Alive. Retrieved 18 April 2020.
  13. ^ "Peruvian Solitaire". Handbook of Birds of the World Alive. Retrieved 18 April 2020.
  14. ^ a b Jobling, James A. (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London, UK: Christopher Helm. pp. 106, 223. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.
  15. ^ Grant, Martin L. (May 1951). "The Origin of the Common Names of Birds". Bios. 22 (2): 116–119. JSTOR 4605362.
  16. ^ Cramp, Stanley, ed. (1977). Handbook of the Birds of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa: Birds of the Western Palearctic, Volume 1, Ostrich to Ducks. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 3. ISBN 0-19-857358-8.
  17. ^ a b c Spaans, Arie L.; Ottema, Otte H. & Ribot, Jan Hein J. M. (2016). Field Guide to the Birds of Suriname. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. p. 524. ISBN 978-90-04-24929-5.
  18. ^ a b Colombia ref
  19. ^ a b c d e Athanas, Nick & Greenfield, Paul J. (2016). Birds of Western Ecuador: A Photographic Guide. Princeton, NJ, USA: Princeton University Press. p. 338. ISBN 978-0-691-15780-1. JSTOR j.ctt19b9jkc.47.
  20. ^ a b c d Schulenberg, Thomas S.; Stotz, Douglas F.; Lane, Daniel F.; O'Neill, John P. & Parker III, Theodore A. (2007). Birds of Peru. London, UK: Christopher Helm. p. 532. ISBN 978-0-7136-8673-9.
  21. ^ Souza, Deodata (2006). All the Birds of Brazil. Shrewsbury, UK: Subbuteo Natural History Books. p. 274. ISBN 978-1-905268-01-6.
  22. ^ Ridgely, Robert S.; Agro, David & Joseph, Leo (February 2005). "Birds of Iwokrama Forest". Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. 154: 109–121. JSTOR 4065127.
  23. ^ Mee, Allan; Ohlson, Jan; Stewart, Ian; Wilson, Mark; Örn, Peter & Ferreyra, Jefferson Diaz (2002). "The Cerros del Sira revisited: birds of sub-montane and montane forest" (PDF). Cotinga. 18: 46–57.
  24. ^ Socolar, S. Jacob; González, Óscar & Forero-Medina, German (2013). "Noteworthy bird records from the northern Cerros del Sira, Peru" (PDF). Cotinga. 35: 24–36.
  25. ^ "Data Zone: Rufous-brown Solitaire Cichlopsis leucogen". BirdLife International. Retrieved 27 July 2020.
  26. ^ "Data Zone: Guianan Solitaire Cichlopsis gularis". BirdLife International. Retrieved 27 July 2020.
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Check these refs

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