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"Titanic" redirects here. For other uses, see Titanic (disambiguation).

RMS Titanic departing Southampton on 10 April 1912 Career Name: RMS Titanic[1] Owner: White Star Line[2] Port of registry: [3] Liverpool Route: Southampton to New York City Ordered: 17 September 1908[4] Builder: Harland and Wolff, Belfast[2] Yard number: 401[4] Laid down: 31 March 1909[4] Launched: 31 May 1911[4] Christened: Not christened Completed: 31 March 1912[citation needed] Maiden voyage: 10 April 1912[5] Identification: Radio Callsign "MGY"[6] UK Official Number: 131428[7] Fate: Foundered on 15 April 1912 after colliding with an iceberg 375 miles southeast of Halifax, Nova Scotia[8][9] General characteristics Class and type: Olympic-class ocean liner[10] Tonnage: 46,328 gross register tons (GRT)[4] Displacement: 52,310 tons[4] Length: 882 ft 6 in (269.0 m)[11] Beam: 92 ft 0 in (28.0 m)[4] Height: 175 ft (53.3 m) (Keel to top of funnels)[11] Draught: 34 ft 7 in (10.5 m)[12] Depth: 64 ft 6 in (19.7 m)[4] Decks: 9 (A through G) Installed power: Boilers: 24 double-ended and 5 single-ended Engines: Two reciprocating steam engines for the wing propellers[13] and a low-pressure turbine for the center propeller[13] Effect: 46,000 HP (design)[14] Propulsion: Two triple-blade wing propellers and one quadruple-blade centre propeller Speed: Cruising: 21 knots (39 km/h; 24 mph)[note 1][15]

Max: 24 knots (44 km/h; 28 mph)[11] Capacity: Passengers: 2,435, crew: 892[16] Notes: Lifeboats: 20[17] with a capacity of 1,178 people[18]

The RMS Titanic was a passenger liner that struck an iceberg in the north Atlantic Ocean on her maiden voyage from Southampton, England, to New York City, United States, and sank on 15 April 1912, resulting in the deaths of 1,517 people in one of the deadliest peacetime maritime disasters in history. The Titanic was designed by experienced engineers, using some of the most advanced technologies and extensive safety features of the time. That she sank on her maiden voyage and that many lives were lost resulted in a media protest which led to changes in maritime law. It also made the Titanic go down in history as the "unsinkable ship" a symbol of human arrogance and the limitations of technology.

The largest passenger steamship in the world at the time, the Olympic-class Royal Mail Ship RMS Titanic was owned by the White Star Line and constructed at the Harland and Wolff shipyard in Belfast, Ireland, UK. After setting sail for New York City on 10 April 1912 with 2,223 people on board, she hit an iceberg four days into the crossing, at 11:40 pm (UTC-3) on 14 April 1912, and sank at 2:20 am on the morning of 15 April. The ship did not sail into the iceberg head-on but rather suffered a glancing blow in a manoeuvre trying to avoid it. Further the iceberg did not open her plates like a can opener but rather tore them apart in the riveted joints. The Titanic was designed to survive a head-on collision that would flood the first four of her water tight compartments or a collision from another ship that would ram her in the middle and flood maximum two compartments; however, this long opening in the hull was not foreseen and the crew soon realised that the ship was going to sink.

The high casualty rate resulting from the sinking was due in part to the fact that, although complying with the regulations of the time, the ship carried lifeboats for only 1,178 people. A disproportionate number of men died due to the "women and children first" protocol that was enforced by the ship's crew. This procedure meant that many boats were only half filled. Since the sea was calm, it would have been safe to fill all boats to capacity and thereby rescue an additional 500 persons. Further, only a few were picked up from the water after the sinking out of fear of the boats being overfilled or capsizing. Another factor that contributed to the high death rate was the failure of the nearby ship the Californian to come to the rescue even though she was within visible range. In the end it was the Carpathia which came to the rescue and picked up the 706 survivors from the lifeboats but not until the Titanic had been sunk for almost 2 hours.[note 2]

In the aftermath of the sinking, the White Star Line's chairman, J. Bruce Ismay, was criticised for having left the ship while there were still passengers on board who could have been saved and the same was the case for the captain of the Californian for failing to assist the sinking ship. In navigation, the disaster led to new safety regulations especially regarding the number of lifeboats which were increased to provide room for everyone on board. Further, wireless telegraphs were to be manned at all hours to make sure a ship could be called to assistance. Since the sinking, the memory of her has been kept alive by books and films. Though the wreck itself has never been recovered, nearly 6,000 artefacts have been lifted from it and are on exhibition today. Memorials of the victims have also been created, mostly in towns associated with the ship and her people.

Contents [hide] 1 Background 2 Dimensions and layout 3 Construction and launch 4 Features 4.1 Engines, boilers and generators 4.2 Other machinery 4.3 Radio equipment 4.4 Passenger facilities 4.5 Lifeboats 4.6 Comparison with the RMS Olympic 5 Service from trials to sinking 5.1 Sea trials 5.2 Maiden voyage 5.2.1 Collision 5.2.2 Call for help 5.2.3 Lifeboats launched 5.2.4 Final minutes of ship and rescue of survivors 6 Aftermath of sinking 6.1 Arrival of Carpathia in New York 6.2 Investigations into the disaster 6.2.1 SS Californian inquiry 6.3 Survivors and victims 6.4 Retrieval and burial of the dead 7 Wreck 7.1 Discovery 7.2 Ownership of artefacts 8 Factors in sinking and loss of lives 8.1 Construction and metallurgy 8.2 Rudder construction and turning ability 8.3 Visibility and speed 8.4 Lifeboats and assisting ships 9 Legacy 9.1 Films 9.2 Legends and myths 9.3 Memorials and museums 9.4 100th anniversary commemoration 10 Appendix 11 See also 12 References 12.1 Explanatory notes 12.2 Notes 12.3 Bibliography 13 External links

BackgroundTitanic was one of the three Olympic-class ocean liners – the others were the RMS Olympic and the RMS Britannic (originally named Gigantic).[4] They were by far the largest vessels in the White Star Line's fleet, which comprised 29 steamers and tenders in 1912.[19] The three ships had their genesis in a discussion of mid-1907 between the White Star Line's chairman, J. Bruce Ismay, and the American financier J. Pierpont Morgan, who controlled the White Star Line's parent corporation, the International Mercantile Marine Co.. The White Star Line faced a growing challenge from its main rivals Cunard, which had just launched Lusitania and Mauretania – the fastest passenger ships then in service – and from the German lines Hamburg America and Norddeutscher Lloyd. Ismay preferred to compete on size rather than speed and proposed to commission a new class of liners that would be bigger than anything that had gone before as well as being the last word in comfort and luxury.[20]

The ships were constructed by the Belfast shipbuilders Harland and Wolff, who had a long-established relationship with the White Star Line dating back to 1867.[21] Harland and Woolf were given a great deal of latitude in designing ships for the White Star Line; the usual approach was for the latter to sketch out a general concept which the former would take away and turn into a ship design. Cost considerations were relatively low on the agenda and Harland and Woolf was authorised to spend what it needed on the ships, plus a five per cent profit margin.[21] In the case of the Olympic-class ships, a cost of £3 million for the first two ships was agreed plus "extras to contract" and the usual five per cent fee.[22]

Harland and Woolf put their top designers on the project to build the Olympic-class ships. It was overseen by Lord Pirrie, a director of both Harland and Wolff and the White Star Line; naval architect Thomas Andrews, who was the managing director of Harland and Wolff's design department; Edward Wilding, who was Andrews' deputy and responsible for calculating the ship's design, stability and trim; and Alexander Carlisle, the shipyard's chief draughtsman and general manager.[23] His responsibilities included the decorations, equipment and all general arrangements, including the implementation of an efficient lifeboat davit design. Carlisle would leave the project in 1910, before the ships were launched, when he became a shareholder in Welin Davit & Engineering Company Ltd, the firm making the davits.[24] Wilding was sacked following the Titanic disaster; he was apparently blamed by Pirrie, unfairly, for Titanic's loss.[25]

On 29 July 1908, Harland and Woolf presented the designs to J. Bruce Ismay and other White Star Line executives. He approved the design and signed three "letters of agreement" two days later authorising the start of construction.[26] At this point the first ship – which was later to become Olympic – had no name but was referred to simply as "Number 400", as it was Harland and Woolf's four hundredth hull. Titanic was based on a revised version of the same design and was given the number 401.[27][note 3]

Dimensions and layout Side plan of RMS TitanicTitanic was 882 feet 9 inches (269.06 m) long with a maximum breadth of 92 feet 6 inches (28.19 m). Her total height, measured from the base of the keel to the top of the bridge, was 104 feet (32 m). She had a gross tonnage of 45,000 tons and a design load draught of 34 feet 6 inches (10.52 m), displacing about 60,000 tons.[29] All three of the Olympic-class ships had eleven decks (excluding the top of the officers' quarters), eight of which were for passenger use. From top to bottom, the decks were:

Cutaway diagram of Titanic's midship sectionBoat Deck, on which the lifeboats were positioned. It was from here in the early hours of 15 April 1912 that Titanic's lifeboats were lowered into the North Atlantic. The bridge and wheelhouse were at the forward end, in front of the captain's and officers' quarters. The bridge stood 8 feet (2.4 m) above the deck, extending out to either side so that the ship could be navigated while docking. The wheelhouse stood directly behind and above the bridge. The entrance to the First Class Grand Staircase and gymnasium were located midships along with the raised roof of the First Class lounge, while at the rear of the deck were the roof of the First Class smoke room and the relatively modest Second Class entrance. The wood-covered deck was divided into four segregated promenades, for officers, First Class passengers, engineers and Second Class passengers respectively. Lifeboats lined the side of the deck except in the First Class area, where there was a gap so that the view would not be spoiled.[30][31] A Deck, also called the Promenade Deck, extended along the entire 546 feet (166 m) length of the superstructure. It was reserved exclusively for First Class passengers and contained First Class cabins, the First Class lounge, smoke room, reading and writing rooms and Palm Court.[30] B Deck, the Bridge Deck, was the top weight-bearing deck and the uppermost level of the hull. More First Class passenger accommodation was located here with six palatial staterooms (cabins) featuring their own private promenades. On Titanic, the A La Carte Restaurant and the Café Parisien provided luxury dining facilities to First Class passengers. Both were run by subcontracted chefs and their staff; all were lost in the disaster. The Second Class smoking room and entrance hall were both located on this deck. The raised forecastle of the ship was forward of the Bridge Deck, accommodating Number 1 hatch (the main hatch through to the cargo holds), various pieces of machinery and the anchor housings. It was kept off-limits to passengers; the famous "flying" scene at the ship's bow from the 1997 film Titanic would not have been possible in real life. Aft of the Bridge Deck was the raised Poop Deck, 106 feet (32 m) long, used as a promenade by Third Class passengers. It was where many Titanic's passengers and crew made their last stand as the ship sank. The forecastle and Poop Deck were separated from the Bridge Deck by well decks.[32][33] C Deck, the Shelter Deck, was the highest deck to run uninterrupted from the ships' stem to stern. It included the two well decks, the aft one of which served as part of the Third Class promenade. Crew cabins were located under the forecastle and Third Class public rooms were situated under the Poop Deck. In between were the majority of First Class cabins and the Second Class library.[32][34] D Deck, the Saloon Deck, was dominated by three large public rooms – the First Class Reception Room and Dining Saloon and the Second Class Dining Saloon. An open space was provided for Third Class passengers. First, Second and Third Class passengers all had cabins on this deck, with berths for firemen located in the bow. It was the highest level reached by the ships' watertight bulkheads (though only by eight of the fifteen bulkheads).[32][35] E Deck, the Upper Deck, was predominately used for passenger accommodation for all classes plus berths for cooks, seamen, stewards and trimmers. Along its length ran a long passageway nicknamed Scotland Road by the crew, in reference to a famous street in Liverpool.[32][36] F Deck, the Middle Deck, was the last complete deck and mainly accommodated Third Class passengers, with some Second Class cabins as well, plus crew accommodation. The Third Class dining saloon was located here, as were the swimming pool and Turkish bath.[32][36] G Deck, the Lower Deck, was the last level that carried passengers and had the lowest level of portholes, just above the waterline. The squash court was located here along with the travelling post office, where mail clerks sorted letters and parcels so that they would be ready for delivery when the ship docked. Food was also stored here. The deck was interrupted at several points by orlop (partial) decks over the boiler, engine and turbine rooms.[32][37] Orlop decks and the Tank Top were at the lowest level of the ship, below the waterline. The orlop decks were used as cargo space, while the Tank Top – the inner bottom of the ship's hull – provided the platform on which the ship's boilers, engines, turbines and electrical generators sat. This part of the ship was dominated by the engine and boiler rooms, areas that passengers would never normally see. They were connected with higher levels of the ship by flights of stairs; twin spiral stairways near the bow gave access all the way up to D Deck.[32][37] Construction and launch Titanic and Olympic under construction in BelfastThe sheer size of Titanic and her sister ships posed a major engineering challenge for Harland and Woolf; no shipbuilder had ever before attempted to construct something so large. The ships were constructed on Queen's Island, now known as the Titanic Quarter, in Belfast Harbour. Harland and Woolf had to demolish three existing slipways and build two new graving (dry) docks, the biggest ever constructed up to that time, to accommodate the giant ships.[22] Their construction was facilitated by an enormous gantry built by Sir William Arrol & Co., a Scottish firm responsible for the building of the Forth Bridge and London's Tower Bridge. The Arrol Gantry stood 228 feet (69 m) high, was 270 feet (82 m) wide and 840 feet (260 m) long, and weighed more than 6,000 tons. It accommodated a number of mobile cranes and a separate floating crane, capable of lifting 200 tons at a time, was brought in from Germany.[38]

The construction of Titanic and Olympic took place virtually in parallel, with Olympic's hull laid down first on 16 December 1908 and Titanic's on 31 March 1909.[39] Both ships took about 26 months to build and followed much the same construction process. They were designed essentially as an enormous floating box girder, with the keel acting as a backbone and the frames of the hull forming the ribs. At the base of the ships, a double bottom 5 feet 3 inches (1.60 m) thick supported 300 frames, each between 24 inches (61 cm) and 36 inches (91 cm) apart and measuring up to about 66 feet (20 m) long. They terminated at the bridge deck (B Deck) and were covered with steel plates which formed the outer skin of the ships.[40]

The 2,000 hull plates were single pieces of rolled steel, mostly up to 6 feet (1.8 m) wide and 30 feet (9.1 m) long and weighing between 2.5 and 3 tons.[41] Their thickness varied from 1.5 inches (3.8 cm) to 1 inch (2.5 cm).[42] The plates were laid in a clinkered (overlapping) fashion from the keel to the bilge. Above that point they were laid in the "in and out" fashion, where strake plating was applied in bands (the "in strakes") with the gaps covered by the "out strakes", overlapping on the edges. Welding was in its infancy at the time, so the structure was held together with over three million iron and steel rivets which by themselves weighed over 1,200 tons. These were fitted using hydraulic machines or were hammered in by hand.[43]

The interiors of the Olympic-class ships were subdivided into sixteen primary compartments divided by fifteen bulkheads which extended well above the waterline. Eleven vertically closing watertight doors could seal off the compartments in the event of an emergency.[42] The ships' exposed decking was made of pine and teak, while interior ceilings were covered in painted granulated cork to combat condensation.[44] The superstructure consisted of two decks, the Promenade Deck and Boat Deck, which were some 500 feet (150 m) long. They accommodated the officers' quarters, gymnasium, public rooms and first-class cabins, plus the bridge and wheelhouse. The ships' lifeboats were carried on the Boat Deck, the uppermost deck.[30] Standing above the decks were four funnels, though only three were functional – the last one was a dummy, installed for aesthetic purposes – and two masts, each 155 feet (47 m) high, which supported derricks for loading cargo. An aerial for sending and receiving wireless signals was slung between the masts.[45]

The work of constructing the ships was difficult and dangerous. For the 15,000 men who worked at Harland and Woolf at the time,[46] safety precautions were rudimentary at best; a lot of the work was dangerous and was carried out without any safety equipment like hard hats or hand guards on machinery. As a result, deaths and injuries were to be expected. During Titanic's construction, 246 injuries were recorded, 28 of them "severe", such as arms severed by machines or legs crushed under falling pieces of steel. Six people died on the ship itself while it was being constructed and fitted out and another two died in the shipyard workshops and sheds.[47]

Titanic was launched at 12:15 pm on 31 May 1911 in the presence of Lord Pirrie, J. Pierpoint Morgan and J. Bruce Ismay and 100,000 onlookers.[48] 22 tons of soap and tallow were spread on the slipway to lubricate the ship's passage into the River Lagan.[49] The ship was not formally named or christened with champagne, following the White Star Line's usual policy for launching.[48] Just before the launch a worker was killed when a piece of wood fell on him.[49] The ship was towed to a fitting-out berth where, over the course of the next year, her engines, funnels and superstructure were installed and her interior was fitted out.[50] The work took longer than expected due to design changes ordered by Ismay and a temporary pause in work occasioned by the need to repair Olympic, which had been in a collision in September 1911. Had Titanic been finished earlier, she might well have missed her rendezvous with an iceberg.[49]

FeaturesEngines, boilers and generators View of the rear port side of Titanic, showing the rudder and the central and port wing propellers. Note the man at the bottom of the image.Titanic was equipped with three engines – two reciprocating four-cylinder, triple-expansion steam engines and one centrally placed low-pressure Parsons turbine – each driving a propeller. The two reciprocating engines had an output of 30,000hp and a further 16,000hp was contributed by the turbine.[29] The White Star Line had previously used the same combination of engines on an earlier liner, the SS Laurentic, where it had been a great success.[51] It provided a good combination of performance and speed; reciprocating engines by themselves were not powerful enough to propel an Olympic-class liner at the desired speeds, while turbines were sufficiently powerful but caused uncomfortable vibrations, a problem that affected the all-turbine Cunard liners Lusitania and Mauretania.[52] By combining reciprocating engines with a turbine, fuel usage could be reduced and motive power increased, while using the same amount of steam.[53]

The two reciprocating engines were giants, each 63 feet (19 m) long and weighing 720 tons. Their bedplates alone weighed a further 195 tons.[52] They were powered by steam produced in 29 boilers, 24 of which were double-ended and 5 single-ended, which contained a total of 159 furnaces.[54] The boilers were 15 feet 9 inches (4.80 m) in diameter and 20 feet (6.1 m) long, each weighing 91.5 tons and capable of holding 48.5 tons of water.[55] They were heated by burning coal, of which 6,611 tons could be carried in Titanic's bunkers with a further 1,092 tons in Hold 3. The furnaces required over 600 tons of coal a day to be shovelled into them by hand, requiring the services of 176 firemen working around the clock.[56] 100 tons of ash a day had to be disposed of by ejecting it into the sea.[57] The work was relentless, dirty and dangerous, and although firemen were paid relatively generously[56] there was a high suicide rate among members of the "Black Gang".[58]

After the steam passed through the reciprocating engines at high pressure it was fed at lower pressure into the turbine, which was situated aft of the main engines. From there it passed into a condenser so that the steam could be condensed back into water and reused.[59] The engines were attached directly to long shafts which drove the propellers. There were three, one for each engine; the outer (or wing) propellers were the largest, each carrying three blades of manganese-bronze alloy with a total diameter of 23.5 feet (7.2 m).[55] The central propeller was somewhat smaller at 17 feet (5.2 m) in diameter.[60]

Titanic's electrical plant was capable of producing more on-board power than a typical city power station of the time.[61] Immediately aft of the turbine engine were four 400kW steam-driven electric generators, used to provide electrical power to the ship, plus two 30kW auxiliary generators provided for emergency use.[62] Their location at the rear of the ship meant during the sinking of Titanic they remained operational until the last few minutes before the ship went under.[63]

Other machineryTitanic's rudder was so huge – at 78 feet 8 inches (23.98 m) high and 15 feet 3 inches (4.65 m) long, weighing over 100 tons – that it could only be moved mechanically. Two steam-powered steering engines were installed though only one was used at any one time, with the other one kept in reserve. They were connected to the short tiller through stiff springs, to isolate the steering engines from any shocks in heavy seas or during fast changes of direction.[64] As a last resort, the tiller could be moved by ropes connected to two steam capstans.[65] The capstans were also used to raise and lower the ship's five anchors (one port, one starboard, one in the centreline and two kedging anchors).[65]

The ship was equipped with its own waterworks, capable of heating and pumping water to all parts of the vessel via a complex network of pipes and valves. The main water supply was taken aboard while Titanic was in port but in an emergency she could also distil fresh water from the sea, though this was not a straightforward process as the distillation plant was quickly clogged by salt deposits. A network of insulated ducts conveyed warm air, driven by electric fans, around the ship, and First Class cabins were fitted with additional electric heaters.[61]

Radio equipmentTitanic was equipped with two 1.5 kW spark-gap wireless telegraphs located in the radio room on the Bridge Deck. One set was used for transmitting messages and the other, located in a soundproofed booth, for receiving them. The signals were transmitted through two parallel wires strung between the ship's masts, 50 feet (15 m) above the funnels to avoid the corrosive smoke.[61] The system was one of the most powerful in the world, with a range of up to 1,000 miles.[66] It was owned and operated by the Marconi Company rather than the White Star Line, and was intended primarily for passengers rather than ship operations. The function of the two wireless operators – both Marconi employees – was to operate a 24-hour service sending and receiving wireless telegrams for passengers. They did, however, also pass on professional ship messages such as weather reports and ice warnings.[67]

Passenger facilities Gymnasium aboard TitanicThe passenger facilities aboard Titanic aimed to meet the highest standards of luxury. The ship could accommodate 739 First Class passengers, 674 in Second Class and 1,026 in Third Class. Her crew numbered about 900 people; in all, she could carry total of about 3,339 people. Her interior design was a departure from that of other passenger liners, which had typically been decorated in the rather heavy style of a manor house or an English country house. Titanic was laid out in a much lighter style similar to that of contemporary high-class hotels – the Ritz Hotel was a reference point – with First Class cabins finished in the Empire style.[68] A variety of other decorative styles, ranging from the Renaissance to Victorian style, were used to decorate cabins and public rooms in First and Second Class areas of the ship. The aim was to convey an impression that the passengers were in a floating hotel rather than a ship; as one passenger recalled, on entering the ship's interior a passenger would "at once lose the feeling that we are on board ship, and seem instead to be entering the hall of a some great house on shore."[69]

There was a telephone system, a lending library and a large barber shop on the ship.[70] The First Class section had a swimming pool, a gymnasium, squash court, Turkish bath, electric bath and a Verandah Cafe.[69] First Class common rooms were adorned with ornate wood panelling, expensive furniture and other decorations while the Third Class general room had pine panelling and sturdy teak furniture.[71] The Café Parisien offered the best French haute cuisine for the First Class passengers, who sat on a sunlit veranda fitted with trellis decorations.[72]

Third Class passengers were not treated as luxuriously as those in First Class, but even so they were better off than their counterparts on many other ships of the time. They were accommodated in cabins accommodating between two and ten people, with a further 164 open berths provided for single young men on G Deck.[73] They were, however, much more limited in their washing and bathing facilities. There were only two bathrooms, one each for men and women, for the entire Third Class complement. They had to wash their own clothes in washrooms equipped with iron tubs, whereas those travelling in First and Second Class could use the ship's laundry.[74] There were also restrictions on which parts of the ship they could enter; all three classes were segregated from each other, and although in theory passengers from the higher classes could visit the lower-class areas of the ship, in practice respect for social conventions meant that they did not do so.[75]

Leisure facilities were provided for all three classes to pass the time. As well as making use of the indoor amenities such as the library, smoking-rooms and gymnasium, it was also customary for passengers to socialise on the open deck, promenading or relaxing in hired deck chairs or wooden benches. A passenger list was published before the sailing to inform the public which members of the great and good were on board, and it was not uncommon for ambitious mothers to use the list to identify rich bachelors to whom they could introduce their marriageable daughters during the voyage.[75]

LifeboatsTitanic carried a total of 20 lifeboats: 16 wooden lifeboats with a capacity of 65 people each and four Englehardt "collapsible" lifeboats (identified as A to D) with a capacity of 47 people each. In addition, it had two emergency cutters with a capacity of 40 people each.[18][note 4] All of the lifeboats were stowed securely on the boat deck and, except for A and B, connected to davits by ropes.Those on the starboard side were odd-numbered 1–15 from bow to stern, while those on the port side were even-numbered 2–16 from bow to stern. The two cutters were kept swung out, hanging from the davits, ready for immediate use, while collapsible lifeboats C and D were stowed on the boat deck immediately inboard of boats 1 and 2 respectively. Collapsible lifeboats A and B were stored on the roof of the officers' quarters, on either side of number 1 funnel. There were no davits to lower them and their weight would make them challenging to launch.[76]

Titanic had 16 sets of davits, each able to handle 4 lifeboats. This gave Titanic the ability to carry up to 64 wooden lifeboats[77], which would have been enough for 4,000 people – considerably more than her actual capacity However, the White Star Line decided that only 16 wooden lifeboats and four collapsibles[note 5] would be carried, which could accommodate 1,178 people, only one-third of Titanic's total capacity.[note 6] At the time, the Board of Trade's regulations required British vessels over 10,000 tons to carry 16 lifeboats with a capacity of 5,500 cubic feet (160 m3), plus enough capacity in rafts and floats for 75% (50% for vessels with watertight bulkheads) of that in the lifeboats. In principle, the White Star line could even have made use of the exception for vessels with watertight bulkheads, which would have reduced the legal requirements to a capacity of 756 persons only.[79] Therefore, the White Star Line actually provided much more lifeboat accommodation than was legally required.[80][note 7]

Comparison with the RMS Olympic The first class dining room aboard OlympicAlthough the Titanic enclosed more space and therefore had a larger gross register tonnage, the hull was the same length as Olympic's. Three of the most noticeable differences from Olympic were that half of Titanic's forward promenade A-Deck (below the boat deck) was enclosed against outside weather, her B-Deck configuration was different, and Olympic also did not have the equivalent of Titanic's Café Parisien. Some of the flaws found on Olympic, such as the creaking of the aft expansion joint, were corrected on Titanic. The skid lights that provided night time illumination on A-deck were round, while on Olympic they were oval, and Titanic's wheelhouse was made narrower and longer than Olympic's.[82] These, and other modifications, made Titanic 1,004 gross register tons larger than Olympic and thus the largest ship in the world during her maiden voyage in April 1912. As a result of Titanic's sinking, Olympic's 1913 refit included raising the height of her watertight compartment bulkheads, the addition of an outer skin to her hull, and a full complement of lifeboats. With the addition of both the Café Parisien and additional parlour suites, Olympic's overall gross tonnage rose to 46,359 tons—31 tons more than Titanic. After the sinking of the Britannic in 1916, the Olympic would hold the distinction of being the largest British-built vessel afloat until the RMS Queen Mary entered service in 1936.[83]

Service from trials to sinkingSea trialsTitanic was only to sail as a complete ship for two weeks before she sank; although she was registered at Liverpool, she never made it to her home port.[84] Her sea trials began at 6 am on Monday, 2 April 1912, just two days after her fitting out was finished and eight days before she was due to leave Southampton on her maiden voyage.[85] The trials had been delayed for a day due to bad weather, but by Monday morning it was clear and fair.[86] Aboard were 78 stokers, greasers and firemen, and 41 members of crew. No domestic staff appear to have been aboard. Representatives of various companies travelled on Titanic's sea trials, Thomas Andrews and Edward Wilding of Harland and Wolff and Harold A. Sanderson of IMM. Bruce Ismay and Lord Pirrie were too ill to attend. Jack Phillips and Harold Bride served as radio operators, and performed fine-tuning of the Marconi equipment. Francis Carruthers, a surveyor from the Board of Trade, was also present to see that everything worked, and that the ship was fit to carry passengers.[87]

The sea trials consisted of a number of tests of her handling characteristics, carried out first in Belfast Lough and then in the open waters of the Irish Sea. Over the course of about twelve hours, Titanic was driven at different speeds, her turning ability was tested and a "crash stop" was performed in which the engines were reversed full ahead to full astern, bringing her to a stop in 850 yd (777 m) or 3 minutes and 15 seconds.[88] The ship covered a distance of about eighty miles, averaging eighteen knots and reaching a maximum speed of just under 21 knots.[89] On returning to Belfast at about 7 pm, the surveyor signed an "Agreement and Account of Voyages and Crew", valid for twelve months, which declared the ship seaworthy. An hour later, Titanic left Belfast again – as it turned out, for the last time – to head to Southampton, a voyage of some 570 miles (920 km). She arrived there at about midnight and was towed to the port's Berth 44, ready for the arrival of her passengers and the remainder of her crew.[90]

Maiden voyageMain article: Sinking of the RMS Titanic

Titanic on her way after the near-collision with SS New York. On the left can be seen Oceanic and New York.The vessel began her maiden voyage from Southampton, bound for New York City on 10 April 1912, with Captain Edward J. Smith in command.[11][91] As Titanic left her berth, her wake caused the liner SS New York, which was docked nearby, to break away from her moorings, whereupon she was drawn dangerously close (about four feet) to Titanic before a tugboat towed New York away; the incident delayed departure for about an hour.[92] After crossing the English Channel, Titanic stopped at Cherbourg, France, to board additional passengers and stopped again the next day at Queenstown (known today as Cobh), Ireland.[93] As harbour facilities at Queenstown were inadequate for a ship of her size, Titanic had to anchor off-shore, with small boats, known as tenders, ferrying the embarking and disembarking passengers to and from the ship.[94] When she finally departed Queenstown for New York, there were a total of 2,216 people aboard.[95][note 8]

Captain Edward J. Smith, captain of TitanicOn the maiden voyage of Titanic some of the most prominent people of the day were travelling in first class. Among them were millionaire John Jacob Astor IV and his wife Madeleine Force Astor, industrialist Benjamin Guggenheim, Macy's owner Isidor Straus and his wife Ida, Denver millionairess Margaret "Molly" Brown,[note 9] Sir Cosmo Duff Gordon and his wife, couturière Lucy (Lady Duff-Gordon), cricketer and businessman John Borland Thayer with his wife Marian together with their son Jack, the Countess of Rothes, author and socialite Helen Churchill Candee, author Jacques Futrelle with his wife May and silent film actress Dorothy Gibson among others.[97] Banker J. P. Morgan was scheduled to travel on the maiden voyage, but cancelled at the last minute.[98] Travelling in first class aboard the ship were White Star Line's managing director J. Bruce Ismay and the ship's builder Thomas Andrews, who was on board to observe any problems and assess the general performance of the new ship.[99]

CollisionOn the night of Sunday, 14 April 1912, the moon was not visible in the clear sky (being two days before new moon), the temperature had dropped to near freezing, and the ocean was flat calm. Captain Smith, in response to iceberg warnings received via wireless over the preceding few days, had drawn up a new course which took the ship slightly further southward. That Sunday at 1:45 PM,[note 10] a message from the steamer Amerika warned that large icebergs lay in Titanic's path, but because wireless radio operators Jack Phillips and Harold Bride were employed by Marconi,[100] and paid primarily to relay messages to and from the passengers,[101] they were not focused on relaying "non-essential" ice messages to the bridge.[102] Later that evening, another report of numerous large icebergs, this time from Mesaba, also failed to reach the bridge.[103]

Route and location of RMS TitanicAt 11:40 PM, while sailing about 400 miles (640 km) south of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, lookouts Frederick Fleet and Reginald Lee spotted a large iceberg directly ahead of the ship. Sounding the ship's bell three times, Fleet telephoned Sixth Officer James Moody on the bridge exclaiming, "Iceberg, right ahead!". First Officer Murdoch, hearing Moody repeat the message, gave the helmsman, Robert Hichens, the order "hard-a-starboard", using the traditional tiller order for an abrupt turn to port (left).[note 11] Moody, stationed behind the helmsman, confirmed to Murdoch that his order had been carried out correctly.[105][106][107]

The ship made her fatal collision at an estimated 37 seconds after Fleet sighted the berg.[108] The iceberg scraped the ship's starboard (right) side, buckling the hull in several places and popping out rivets below the waterline over a length of 299 feet (90 m). This opened the first six compartments (the forward peak tank, the three forward holds and Boiler Rooms Nos. 5 & 6) to the sea; the ship was only designed to remain afloat with just the first four compartments flooded. The entire impact had lasted approximately 10 seconds.[79][109] Captain Smith, alerted by the jolt of the impact, arrived on the bridge and ordered a full stop. The watertight doors had been immediately shut by Murdoch, and within ten minutes of the collision the five forward compartments were flooded to a depth of 14 feet (4.3 m). The fifth and sixth water-filled compartments weighed down the ship's bow enough to allow more water to flood the vessel, accelerated by secondary flooding as regular openings in the ship's hull became submerged.[79] Additionally, about 130 minutes after the collision, water started pouring from the sixth into the seventh compartment over the top of the bulkhead separating them.[79] Following an inspection by the senior officers, the ship's carpenter J. Hutchinson and Titanic's shipbuilder Thomas Andrews, which included a survey of the half-flooded two-deck postal room, it was apparent that Titanic would sink. The lifeboats were ordered to be readied and a distress call was sent out.[6] Andrews estimated the ship would go down within an hour and a half.[6]

Call for help Photograph of an iceberg in the vicinity of RMS Titanic's sinking taken on 15 April 1912. It was stated to have a red anti-fouling paint of the kind found on Titanic.Wireless operators Jack Phillips and Harold Bride began sending the international distress signal "CQD", which was received by several ships, including Mount Temple, Frankfurt, Virginian and Titanic's sister ship, Olympic. In addition to the traditional CQD, Phillips also used the new "SOS" distress call on the advice of Bride.[note 12] Despite assurances that they were on their way, none of the vessels were close enough to reach the liner before she sank.[110] The closest ship to respond was Cunard Line's Carpathia 58 miles (93 km) away, which would arrive in an estimated four hours—too late to rescue all of Titanic's passengers. The Carpathia's wireless operator Harold Cottam awakened the ship's Captain Arthur Rostron, who immediately ordered the ship to race towards the Titanic's reported position.[111] The only land-based location that received the distress call from Titanic was a wireless station at Cape Race, Newfoundland.[110][112] Some of the responding liners did not fully comprehend the seriousness of the collision. As late as 1:30 am, a full 90 minutes after the first CQD was sent out, Olympic radioed her sister asking if she (Titanic) was steaming south to meet her, while the Frankfurt continually asked a frustrated Phillips for more details.[113]

From the bridge, the lights of a nearby ship could be seen off the port side. The identity of the ship sighted by the Titanic remains a mystery but there have been theories suggesting that it was probably either SS Californian or a Norwegian sealer called the Samson.[114][note 13] As it was not responding to wireless calls, Fourth Officer Boxhall and Quartermaster Rowe attempted signalling the ship with a Morse lamp and later with distress rockets, but the ship never appeared to respond.[116] Californian, which was nearby and stopped for the night because of ice, also saw lights in the distance, but its wireless was turned off for the night. Just before the Californian's wireless operator had gone off-duty at around 11:00 PM, he attempted to warn Titanic that there was ice ahead, but he was cut off by an annoyed Jack Phillips. Occupied with sending backlogged passenger messages, Phillips fired back an angry response, "Shut up, shut up, I am busy; I am working [the Newfoundland wireless station] Cape Race".[117] When Californian's officers first saw the ship, they tried signalling her with their Morse lamp, but never received a response. Later, they noticed Titanic's distress rockets in the sky above the ship's lights, and informed Captain Stanley Lord. Even though there was much discussion about the mysterious ship, which to the officers on duty appeared to be moving away, the master of Californian did not wake the ship's wireless operator until morning.[116]

Lifeboats launched Sinking of the Titanic by Henry Reuterdahl, drawing based on radio descriptions.The first lifeboat launched was Lifeboat 7 on the starboard side with 19 people on board out of a capacity of 65; it was lowered at around 12:45 AM.[118] Lifeboat 6 and Lifeboat 5 were launched ten minutes later. Lifeboat 1 was the fifth lifeboat to be launched with 12 people. Lifeboat 11 was overloaded with 70 people. Collapsible D was the last lifeboat to be launched.[119] Titanic carried 20 lifeboats with a total capacity of 1,178 people. While not enough to hold all of the passengers and crew, Titanic carried more boats than was required by the British Board of Trade Regulations. At the time, the number of lifeboats required was determined by a ship's gross register tonnage, rather than her passenger capacity.[citation needed]

Titanic had ample stability and sank with only a few degrees list, the design being such that there was very little risk of unequal flooding and possible capsize.[79] Furthermore the electric power plant was operated by the ship's engineers until the end. Hence Titanic showed no outward signs of being in imminent danger, and passengers were reluctant to leave the apparent safety of the ship to board small lifeboats. Moreover, large numbers of Third Class passengers were unable to reach the lifeboat deck through unfamiliar parts of the ship and past barriers, although some stewards such as John Edward Hart[120] and William Denton Cox successfully led groups from Third Class to the lifeboats.[121] As a result, most of the boats were launched partially empty; boat 1, meant to hold 40 people, left Titanic with only 12 people on board. With "Women and children first" the imperative for loading lifeboats, Second Officer Lightoller, who was loading boats on the port side, allowed men to board only if oarsmen were needed, even if there was room. First Officer Murdoch, who was loading boats on the starboard side, let men on board if women were absent. As the ship's list increased people started to become nervous, and some lifeboats began leaving fully loaded. By 2:05 am, the entire bow was under water, and all the lifeboats, except for two, had been launched.[citation needed]

Final minutes of ship and rescue of survivorsAround 2:10 AM, the stern rose out of the water, exposing the propellers, and by 2:17 AM, the waterline had reached the boat deck. The last two lifeboats floated off the deck, collapsible B upside down, collapsible A half-filled with water after the supports for its canvas sides were broken in the fall from the roof of the officers' quarters. Shortly afterwards, the forward funnel collapsed, crushing part of the bridge and people in the water. On deck, people were scrambling towards the stern or jumping overboard in hopes of reaching a lifeboat. The ship's stern slowly rose into the air, and everything unsecured crashed towards the water. While the stern rose, the electrical system finally gave way causing the lights to go out. Shortly afterward, the stress on the hull caused Titanic to break apart between the last two funnels, and the bow section went completely under. The stern section righted itself slightly and then rose vertically. After a few moments, at 2:20 AM, it also sank.[122]

Only two of the 18 launched lifeboats rescued people after the ship sank. Lifeboat 4 was close by and picked up five people, two of whom later died. Close to an hour later, lifeboat 14 went back and rescued four people, one of whom died afterward. Other people managed to climb onto the lifeboats that floated off the deck. There were arguments in some of the other lifeboats about going back, but many occupants were afraid of the boats being swamped or pulled down by the suction from the ship, though it turned out that there were to be very little suction.[123] After steaming at 17.5 knots (32.4 km/h) for just less than four hours, RMS Carpathia arrived in the area and at 4:10 am began rescuing survivors. By 8:30 am she picked up the last lifeboat with survivors and left the area at 8:50AM bound for New York.[124]

Aftermath of sinkingArrival of Carpathia in New York Carpathia docked at Pier 54 in New York following the rescue.On 18 April, Carpathia docked at Pier 54 at Little West 12th Street in New York with the survivors.[125] She arrived at night and was greeted by thousands of people. Immediate relief in the form of clothing and transportation to shelters was provided by the Women's Relief Committee, the Travelers Aid Society of New York, and the Council of Jewish Women, among other organizations.[126][127] Titanic had been heading for 20th Street. Carpathia dropped off the empty Titanic lifeboats at Pier 59, as property of the White Star Line, before unloading the survivors at Pier 54. Both piers were part of the Chelsea Piers built to handle luxury liners of the day. As news of the disaster spread, many people were shocked that Titanic could sink with such great loss of life despite all of her technological advances.[128]

On the morning of 15 April 1912, the White Star Line headquarters in Liverpool were besieged by press and relatives of passengers, officials feared leaving the building and therefore updated the crowds from the fourth floor balconies.[129] Newspapers were filled with stories and descriptions of the disaster and were eager to get the latest information. Many charities were set up to help the victims and their families, many of whom lost their sole breadwinner, or, in the case of third class survivors, lost everything they owned.[130] On 29 April opera stars Enrico Caruso and Mary Garden and members of the Metropolitan Opera raised $12,000 in benefits for victims of the disaster by giving special concerts in which versions of "Autumn" and "Nearer My God To Thee" were part of the program.[131] The people of Southampton suffered the greatest losses from the sinking. According to the Hampshire Chronicle on 20 April 1912, almost 1,000 local families were directly affected. Almost every street in the Chapel district of the town lost more than one resident and over 500 households lost a member.[128]

Investigations into the disaster "The Margin of Safety Is Too Narrow!", a 1912 cartoon by Kyle Fergus, showing the public demanding answers about the Titanic disaster from the shipping companiesEven before the survivors arrived in New York, investigations were being planned to discover what had happened, and what could be done to prevent a recurrence. The United States Senate initiated an inquiry into the disaster on 19 April, a day after Carpathia arrived in New York.[132]

The chairman of the inquiry, Senator William Alden Smith, wanted to gather accounts from passengers and crew while the events were still fresh in their minds. Smith also needed to subpoena all surviving British passengers and crew while they were still on American soil, which prevented them from returning to the UK before the American inquiry was completed on 25 May.[132] The British press condemned Smith as an opportunist, insensitively forcing an inquiry as a means of gaining political prestige and seizing "his moment to stand on the world stage". Smith, however, already had a reputation as a campaigner for safety on U.S. railroads, and wanted to investigate any possible malpractices by railroad tycoon J. P. Morgan, Titanic's ultimate owner.[133]

Lord Mersey was appointed to head the British Board of Trade's inquiry into the disaster, which took place between 2 May and 3 July. Each inquiry took testimony from both passengers and crew of Titanic, crew members of Leyland Line's Californian, Captain Arthur Rostron of Carpathia and other experts.{{sfn|Butler|1998|pp=192-194}

The investigations found that many safety rules were simply out of date, and new laws were recommended. Numerous safety improvements for ocean-going vessels were implemented, including improved hull and bulkhead design, access throughout the ship for egress of passengers, lifeboat requirements, improved life-vest design, the holding of safety drills, better passenger notification, radio communications laws, etc. The investigators also learned that Titanic had sufficient lifeboat space for all first-class passengers, but not for the lower classes. In fact, most third class passengers had no idea where the lifeboats were, much less any way of getting to the upper decks where the lifeboats were stowed.[81][note 14]

SS Californian inquiryBoth inquiries into the disaster examined the SS Californian's assistance to Titanic. Testimony before the British inquiry revealed that at 10:10 pm, Californian observed the lights of a ship to the south; it was later agreed between Captain Stanley Lord and Third Officer C.V. Groves (who had relieved Lord of duty at 11:10 pm) that this was a passenger liner. Californian had warned the ship by radio of the pack ice which was the reason Californian had stopped for the night, but was violently rebuked by Titanic's senior wireless operator, Jack Phillips. At 11:50 pm, the officer had watched that ship's lights flash out, as if it had shut down or turned sharply, and that the port light was now visible. Morse light signals to the ship, upon Lord's order, occurred five times between 11:30 pm and 1:00 am, but were not acknowledged. (In testimony, it was stated that Californian's Morse lamp had a range of about four miles (6 km), so could not have been seen from Titanic.)[116]

SS Californian, which had tried to warn Titanic of the danger from pack-iceCaptain Lord had retired at 11:30 pm; however, Second Officer Herbert Stone, now on duty, notified Lord at 1:15 am that the ship had fired a rocket, followed by four more. Lord wanted to know if they were company signals, that is, coloured flares used for identification. Stone said that he did not know and that the rockets were all white. Captain Lord instructed the crew to continue to signal the other vessel with the Morse lamp, and went back to sleep. Three more rockets were observed at 1:50 am and Stone noted that the ship looked strange in the water, as if she were listing. At 2:15 am, Lord was notified that the ship could no longer be seen. Lord asked again if the lights had had any colours in them, and he was informed that they were all white.[136]

Californian eventually responded. At 5:30 am, Chief Officer George Stewart awakened wireless operator Cyril Furmstone Evans, informed him that rockets had been seen during the night, and asked that he try to communicate with any ships. Frankfurt notified the operator of Titanic's loss, Captain Lord was notified, and the ship set out for assistance.[136]

The inquiries found that Californian was much closer to Titanic than the 19.5 miles (31.4 km) that Captain Lord had believed, and that Lord should have awakened the wireless operator after the rockets were first reported to him, and thus could have acted to prevent loss of life.[116][note 15]

Survivors and victimsSee also: statistics of survivors and victims in appendix Of a total of 2,224 people aboard Titanic only 710, less than a third, survived and 1,514 perished.[138] Men and members of the 2nd and 3rd class were less likely to survive. Of the male passengers in second class, 92 percent perished. Less than a quarter of third-class passengers survived.[139] All but one of the children in first and second class survived, whereas less than half were saved in third class. 97 percent of the women in first class survived, 86 percent of the women survived in second class and less than half survived in third class.[139] Of men on board, 33 percent of the first class were saved, while only 8 percent of the second class and 16 percent of the third class were saved. Overall, only 20 percent of the men survived, compared to nearly 75 percent of the women.[139] Men in first class were four times as likely to survive as men in second class, and twice as likely to survive as those in third.[139]

Four of the eight officers survived. About 21 of the 29 able seamen survived and all seven quartermasters and eight lookouts survived. Three of the 13 leading firemen survived, around 45 other firemen survived and around 20 of the 73 coal trimmers survived. Four of the 33 greasers survived and one of the six mess hall stewards survived. Around 60 of the 322 stewards and 16 of the 18 stewardesses survived. Three of the 68 restaurant staff survived. All five postal clerks, guarantee group, and eight-member orchestra perished.[citation needed]

Retrieval and burial of the deadOnce the massive loss of life became known, White Star Line chartered the cable ship CS Mackay-Bennett from Halifax, Nova Scotia to retrieve bodies. Three other ships followed in the search: cable ship Minia, lighthouse supply ship Montmagny and sealing vessel Algerine. Each ship left with embalming supplies, undertakers, and clergy. Of the 333 victims that were eventually recovered, 328 were retrieved by the Canadian ships and five more by passing North Atlantic steamships.[note 16] In mid-May 1912, RMS Oceanic recovered three bodies over 200 miles (320 km) from the site of the sinking who were among the original occupants of Collapsible A. When Fifth Officer Harold Lowe and six crewmen returned to the wreck site sometime after the sinking in a lifeboat to pick up survivors, they had rescued a female from Collapsible A, but left the dead bodies of three of its occupants.[note 17] After their retrieval from Collapsible A by Oceanic, the bodies were then buried at sea.[141][142]

The first body recovery ship to reach the site of the sinking, the cable ship CS Mackay-Bennett found so many bodies that the embalming supplies aboard were quickly exhausted, and health regulations required that only embalmed bodies could be returned to port.[143] Captain Larnder of the Mackay-Bennett and undertakers aboard decided to preserve only the bodies of first class passengers, justifying their decision by the need to visually identify wealthy men to resolve any disputes over large estates. As a result, third class passengers and crew were buried at sea. Larnder himself claimed that as a mariner, he would expect to be buried at sea.[144] Complaints about the burials at sea were made by families and undertakers. Later ships such as Minia found fewer bodies and were able to limit burials at sea to bodies which were too damaged to preserve.[citation needed]

Bodies recovered were preserved for transport to Halifax, the closest city to the sinking with direct rail and steamship connections. The Halifax coroner, John Henry Barnstead, developed a detailed system to identify bodies and safeguard personal possessions. Relatives from across North America came to identify and claim bodies. A large temporary morgue was set up in a curling rink and undertakers were called in from all across Eastern Canada to assist.[144] Some bodies were shipped to be buried in their home towns across North America and Europe. About two-thirds of the bodies were identified. Unidentified victims were buried with simple numbers based on the order in which their bodies were discovered. The majority of recovered victims, 150 bodies, were buried in three Halifax cemeteries, the largest being Fairview Lawn Cemetery followed by the nearby Mount Olivet and Baron de Hirsch cemeteries.[145]

WreckMain article: The wreck of the RMS Titanic

Part of the Titanic wreck in 2003 with rusticles on itThe idea of finding the wreck of Titanic, and even raising the ship from the ocean floor, had been around since shortly after the ship sank.[note 18]

DiscoveryNo attempt of finding the wreck was successful until 1 September 1985, when a joint American-French expedition, led by Jean-Louis Michel (Ifremer) and Dr. Robert Ballard (WHOI), located the wreck using the side-scan sonar from the research vessels Knorr and Le Suroit.[147] The wreck was found at a depth of 2.5 miles (4 km), slightly more than 370 miles (600 km) south-east of Mistaken Point, Newfoundland at 41°43′55″N 49°56′45″W / 41.73194°N 49.94583°W / 41.73194; -49.94583Coordinates: 41°43′55″N 49°56′45″W / 41.73194°N 49.94583°W / 41.73194; -49.94583.[citation needed]

The most notable finding at the discovery was that the ship had split apart, the stern section lying 1,970 feet (600 m) from the bow section and facing opposite directions.[148] As the ship fell into the depths, the two sections had behaved very differently. The streamlined bow planed off approximately 2,000 ft (610 m) below the surface and slowed somewhat, landing relatively gently. The stern plunged violently to the ocean floor, the hull being torn apart along the way from massive implosions caused by compression of water tight compartments inside the ship. The stern smashed into the bottom at considerable speed, grinding the hull deep into the silt.[122] After the ship had sunk there were conflicting witness accounts of whether she broke apart or not; it was generally assumed, before the discovery, that she did not.[148]

Surrounding the wreck was a large debris field with pieces of the ship, furniture, dinnerware and personal items scattered over 2 square miles (5.2 km2).[149] Approximately 5,500 artefacts have been removed from the wreck. Many of these were put on display at the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich, England, and later as part of a travelling museum exhibit.[150] The Merseyside Maritime Museum in the Titanic's home port of Liverpool also has an extensive collection of artefacts from the wreck located within a permanent exhibition named 'Titanic, Lusitania and the Forgotten Empress'.[151]

Ownership of artefactsTitanic's rediscovery in 1985 launched a debate over ownership of the wreck and the valuable items inside. In 1994 RMS Titanic Inc., a subsidiary of Premier Exhibitions Inc., was awarded ownership and salvaging rights by the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia.[152] (See Admiralty law) On March 24, 2009, it was revealed that the fate of 5,900 artefacts retrieved from the wreck would rest with a U.S. District Judge's decision.[153] The ruling was later issued in two decisions on 12 August 2010 and 15 August 2011. As announced in 2009, the judge ruled that RMS Titanic Inc. owned the artefacts and her decision dealt with the status of the wreck as well as establishing a monitoring system to check future activity upon the wreck site.[154] On 12 August 2010, Judge Rebecca Beach Smith granted RMS Titanic, Inc. fair market value for the artefacts but deferred ruling on their ownership and the conditions for their preservation, possible disposition and exhibition until a further decision could be reached.[155] On 15 August 2011, Judge Smith granted title to thousands of artefacts from the Titanic that RMS Titanic Inc., did not already own under a French court decision concerning the first group of salvaged artefacts to RMS Titanic Inc., subject to a detailed list of conditions concerning preservation and disposition of the items.[156] The artefacts can be sold only to a company that would abide by the lengthy list of conditions and restrictions.[156] RMS Titanic Inc. can profit from the artefacts through exhibiting them.[156]

Factors in sinking and loss of lives The iceberg buckled the plates, popping rivets and damaging a sequence of compartments.It is well established that the sinking of Titanic was the result of an iceberg collision, which fatally punctured the ship's five forward most watertight compartments. Less obvious, however, are the reasons for the collision itself (which occurred on a clear night, and after the ship had received numerous ice warnings), the factors underlying the sheer extent of the damage sustained by the ship, and the reasons for the extreme loss of life.[157]

Construction and metallurgyThe Titanic had 16 watertight compartments design to keep the ship afloat if the first 4 or 2 in the middle were flooded. This was what could be expected at a collision head-on into an iceberg or a collision from an other ship into the Titanic.[158] However, the long glancing blow to the starboard side of the Titanic causing buckling in the hull plates of the first six compartments was more than the ship's designers had anticipated.[159][160][note 19]

Originally, historians thought the iceberg had cut a gash into Titanic's hull. Since the part of the ship that the iceberg damaged is now buried, scientists used sonar to examine the area and discovered the iceberg had caused the hull to buckle, allowing water to enter Titanic between her steel plates.[157] A detailed analysis of small pieces of the steel plating from Titanic found that it was of a metallurgy that loses its ductility and becomes brittle in cold or icy water, leaving it vulnerable to dent-induced ruptures. Titanic's steel was, by this analysis, unsuitable for use at low temperatures.[161] Newer analysis, however, suggest that Titanic's hull steel was by no means a brittle material, even at ice-brine temperatures; earlier tests had been made using a simulated impact, whereas a simulated "slow bend", representing a glancing collision, is more representative of the event.[162] It must also be remembered, as can be seen on the image, that it was not Titanic's plates that cracked but the joints that were torn apart.[108]

The major part of Titanic's hull was held together by steel rivets which were installed by a hydraulic riveting machine. At the bow and the stern this machine could not be used. There, the stresses were expected to be much lower than at the central hull, thus the use of wrought iron rivets (which could be easier installed by hand) was sufficient. Forty-eight out of the millions of rivets holding the Titanic together were recovered from the wreck site, six of which were identified as hull rivets.[163] While the mild steel rivets were of proper quality, the scientists found many of the wrought iron rivets to be riddled with slag, a glassy residue of smelting, which can make rivets brittle and prone to fracture. Records showed that the ship's builder ordered No. 3 iron bar, not No. 4, as material for the wrought iron rivets, although No. 4 iron, the material of the two closer to the tensile strength of steel, was typically preferred for such rivets.[164] Despite this, the most extensive damage the Titanic sustained was not in areas with low quality rivets, but at boiler rooms No. 5 and 6, where the high quality steel rivets were used.[163][165]

Rudder construction and turning ability View of the stern and rudder of RMS Olympic in dry-dock. A man is standing beneath.[166]Although Titanic's rudder met the mandated dimensional requirements for a ship her size, its design might not have reflected contemporary standards. According to research by BBC History: "Her stern, with its high graceful counter and long thin rudder, was an exact copy of an 18th-century sailing ship ...No account was made for advances in scale and little thought was given to how a ship, 852 feet[note 20] in length might turn in an emergency or avoid collision with an iceberg."[167] However, far from being an ill-considered copy of a traditional design, the tall rudder shape was effective at the vessel's designed cruising speed where as short, square rudders are suitable for low-speed manoeuvring. Compared with the modern legal standard — which requires rudder areas to be within a range of 1.5% and 5% of the hull's underwater profile — Titanic's rudder was at the low end of the range at 1.9%, but this configuration has been shown to be effective because it provides good laminar flow of water.[168] During World War One, the Olympic fitted with the same semi-oval rudder as Titanic was able to turn quickly to avoid an enemy submarine, then chase it down and ram and sink it.[169][170]

Possibly contributing to the disaster was Titanic's triple-screw engine configuration, which had reversible reciprocating steam engines driving the two outboard propellers, and a non-reversible steam turbine driving the centre propeller. According to Fourth Officer Joseph Boxhall, who came onto the bridge just after the collision, First Officer Murdoch had set the engine room telegraph to reverse the engines to avoid the iceberg,[171] but because the centre turbine could not reverse during the "full speed astern" manoeuvre, it and the centre propeller, positioned directly forward of the ship's rudder, were simply stopped. This greatly reduced the rudder's effectiveness, thus handicapping the turning ability of the ship. Had Murdoch simply turned the ship while maintaining her forward speed, Titanic might have missed the iceberg with feet to spare.[172]

Visibility and speedThe conditions at the time of the collision—a flat calm sea, without wind or swell—were unusual for that part of the Atlantic. In addition, it was a moonless night.[173] Under normal sea conditions in the area of the collision, waves would have broken over the base of any icebergs, increasing their visibility to lookouts even on a moonless night.[174] A weather front, moving down from the northwest, lowered the temperature from about 43° Fahrenheit (6° Celsius) to near freezing. The northwest winds behind the front helped to push a giant ice field toward the ship.[175] Visibility might have been better if the lookouts were equipped with binoculars, but they were believed to have been left in Southampton.[176] Further the iceberg that the Titanic hit was newly overturned and thereby wet and appeared dark at night.[177]

The conclusion of the British Inquiry into the sinking was “that the loss of the said ship was due to collision with an iceberg, brought about by the excessive speed at which the ship was being navigated”. At the time of the collision it is thought that Titanic was at her normal cruising speed of about 21 knots (39 km/h), which was less than her top speed of around 23 knots (43 km/h). At the time it was common (but not universal) practice to maintain normal speed in areas where icebergs were expected. It was thought that any iceberg large enough to damage the ship would be seen in sufficient time to be avoided. It is often alleged that J. Bruce Ismay instructed or encouraged Captain Smith to increase speed in order to make an early landfall, and it is a common feature in popular representations of the disaster, such as the 1997 film, Titanic.[178] There is little evidence for this having happened, and it is disputed by many.[179][180]

Lifeboats and assisting ships Survivors aboard a collapsible lifeboat, viewed from Carpathia.The most recent law, dating from 1894, required a minimum of 16 lifeboats for ships of over 10,000 tons. This law had been established when the largest ship afloat was the 12,950-ton RMS Lucania. Since then, the size of ships had increased rapidly without a corresponding increase in lifeboat requirements, with a result that the 46,328-ton Titanic was legally required to carry only enough lifeboats for less than half of her capacity. The White Star Line actually exceeded the regulations by including four more collapsible lifeboats, providing a total capacity of 1,178 people (still only around a third of Titanic's total capacity of 3,547).[81]

The delay in launching lifeboats was also a factor. After the collision with the iceberg, one hour was taken to evaluate the damage, recognise what was going to happen, inform first class passengers, and lower the first lifeboat. Afterward, the crew worked efficiently, taking a total of 80 minutes to lower all 16 lifeboats. Since the crew were divided into two teams, one on each side of the ship, an average of 10 minutes of work was necessary for a team to fill a lifeboat with passengers and lower it.[181] The initial reluctance of the passengers to board the lifeboats contributed to the death toll. For example, Lifeboat No. 7 launched first, at 12:45 am and with only 28 people aboard, despite its capacity of 65. Titanic did not initially appear to passengers to be in imminent danger, so they were reluctant to leave the apparent safety of the ship.[181]

In the event of a serious accident in the busy North Atlantic sea lanes, assistance from other vessels was assumed to be close at hand. In this case, the lifeboats would be used to ferry passengers and crew from the stricken vessel to its rescuers. Full provision of lifeboats on the ship was considered unnecessary to support this activity.[182][note 21] The temperature of the water also played a role. Had it been warm enough for people to stay alive in it for the time it took to get help, some of them could have been picked up of the water alive and the lack of lifeboats would have been less important. However, allmost all of the swimmers died from hypothermia in the 28 °F (−2 °C) water[184] where death could occur in as little as 15 minutes.[185]

LegacyFilms Seven of the eight members of Titanic's band that became a legend.The tragedy of the Titanic have inspired books and films most famously in the 1958 film A Night to Remember and in James Cameron's Titanic from 1997.[186] Both films were meet well by critics and the latter, upon its release on 19 December 1997, had unprecedented commercial success.[187] It equalled records with fourteen Academy Award nominations and eleven wins, receiving the prizes for Best Picture and Best Director.[188] With a worldwide gross of over $1.8 billion, it was the first film to reach the billion dollar mark, remaining the highest-grossing film of all time for twelve years (until Cameron's next directorial effort, Avatar, surpassed it in 2010).[189][190] Titanic is also ranked as the sixth best epic film of all time in AFI's 10 Top 10 by the American Film Institute.[191]

Legends and mythsMain article: Legends and myths regarding RMS Titanic The Titanic has gone down in history as the ship that was called unsinkable.[note 22] However, even though she was called so in news stories after the sinking, the fact is that neither The White Star Line nor Harland and Wolff declared her unsinkable.[192] Another well-known story is that of the ship's band, who heroically played on while the great steamer was sinking. This seems to be true but there has been conflicting information about which song was the last to be heard. The most reported is "Nearer, My God, to Thee" but also "Autumn" has been mentioned.[76][note 23] Finally, a widespread myth is that the internationally recognised Morse code distress signal "SOS" was first put to use when the Titanic sank. While it is true that British wireless operators rarely used the "SOS" signal at the time, preferring the older "CQD" code, "SOS" had been used internationally since 1908. The first wireless operator on Titanic, Jack Phillips, sent both "SOS" and "CQD" as call for help.[194]

Memorials and museums The memorial to Titanic's engineers in Southampton unveiled 1914In Southampton, England a memorial to the engineers of Titanic may be found in Andrews Park on Above Bar Street. Near the main memorial, on the corner of Cumberland Place and London Road, is the Titanic Musicians' Memorial to Wallace Hartley and the other musicians who continued playing as the ship went down. A memorial to the ship's five postal workers, which says "Steadfast in Peril" is held by Southampton Heritage Services.[195]

In Cobh (formerly known as Queenstown from 1849 to 1920), County Cork, Ireland a memorial to the Titanic stands in the town centre.[196] Queenstown was the final port of call for the ill-fated liner as she set out across the Atlantic on 11 April 1912.

A significant percentage of Titanic's crew members were from Liverpool, including its six most senior engineers.[197] The Memorial to the Engine Room Heroes of the Titanic stands at Pier Head in Liverpool City Centre close to the former White Star Line headquarters.[197] A memorial plaque commemorating the ship's famed orchestra (which was formed in Liverpool and included Liverpudlian John Frederick Clarke) is located inside Philharmonic Hall on Hope Street.[197]

Another memorial to 36 engineers who lost their lives is in the foyer of Scottish Opera, Elmbank Street, Glasgow, formerly the headquarters of the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland, whose members subscribed for the memorial. It was unveiled on 15th April 1914[citation needed].

A memorial to the liner is also located on the grounds of City Hall in Belfast, Northern Ireland.[198] Titanic Belfast, a £77m tourist attraction on the regenerated site of the Harland and Wolff shipyard is to be completed by 15 April 2012, the 100th anniversary of the sinking of Titanic. The building and surrounding park will celebrate Titanic and her links with Belfast, where the ship was built.[199]

Among a number of memorials in the United States are the Titanic Memorial in Washington, D.C. and a memorial to Ida Straus at Straus Park in Manhattan, New York.[200][201]

The oldest Titanic Museum in America is in Indian Orchard, Massachusetts. Established in 1963, the Titanic Historical Society Museum [202] houses a number of original artefacts from the ship, including the lifejacket of Mrs. John Jacob Astor, assorted blueprints, and other memorabilia. The museum and its co-run Titanic Historical Society, occasionally loan artefacts to larger museums elsewhere in the United States.

Much floating wreckage which was recovered with the bodies in 1912 can be seen today in the Maritime Museum of the Atlantic in Halifax. Other pieces are part of the travelling exhibition, Titanic: The Artifact Exhibition.[203] A newer attraction, the Branson Titanic Museum opened 2006 in Missouri, USA, is a permanent two-story museum shaped like the RMS Titanic. It is built half-scale to the original and holds 400 pre-discovery artefacts in twenty galleries.[citation needed]

100th anniversary commemorationAt 12:13 pm on 31 May 2011, exactly 100 years after Titanic rolled down her slipway, a single flare was fired over Belfast's docklands in commemoration. All boats in the area around the Harland and Wolff shipyard then sounded their horns and the assembled crowd applauded for exactly 62 seconds, the time it had originally taken for the liner to roll down the slipway in 1911.[204] On 6 April 2012, the 100th anniversary of Titanic's maiden voyage will be celebrated by re-releasing the 1997 feature film Titanic in 3D.[205] ITV1 have produced a four-part Titanic mini-series, written by Oscar-winner Julian Fellowes, to be broadcast in early 2012.[206]

The Royal Philharmonic Orchestra will perform The Titanic Requiem, a classical piece written by singer/songwriter Robin Gibb and his son RJ Gibb, on 10 April in London. The event will include a hologram show depicting the sea, the ship, and the iceberg.[207]

The cruise ship Balmoral, operated by Fred Olsen Cruise Lines has been chartered by Miles Morgan Travel to follow the original route of Titanic, intending to stop over the point on the sea bed where she rests on 15 April 2012.[208]

Appendix[show]Diagram of RMS Titanic Annotated diagram of RMS Titanic showing the arrangement of the bulkheads in red. Compartments in the engineering area at the bottom of the ship are noted in blue. Names of decks are listed to the right (Starting at top on Boat deck, going from A through F and ending on Lower deck at the waterline). Areas of damage made by the iceberg are shown in green. The scale's smallest unit is 10 feet (3.0 m) and its total length is 400 feet (120 m).

[show]Statistics of survivors and victims The table below shows the survivors and victims for passengers and crew onboard the RMS Titanic. Passengers are subdivided into men, women and children for each class while crew is divided into men and women. The table is sortable so that each column can be shown in alphabetically (or numerically) order growing of falling. Person Category Number Aboard Percentage Saved Percentage Lost Number Saved Number Lost Children, First Class 6 83% 17% 5 1 Children, Second Class 24 100% 0% 24 0 Children, Third Class 79 34% 66% 27 52 Women, First Class 144 97% 3% 140 4 Women, Second Class 93 86% 14% 80 13 Women, Third Class 165 46% 54% 76 89 Men, First Class 175 33% 67% 57 118 Men, Second Class 168 8% 92% 14 154 Men, Third Class 462 16% 84% 75 387 Women, Crew 23 87% 13% 20 3 Men, Crew 885 22% 78% 192 693 Total 2224 32% 68% 710 1514

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Changes in safety practices following the RMS Titanic disaster Futility, or the Wreck of the Titan, a novella written by Morgan Robertson that outlined events similar to that of Titanic, fourteen years prior to her sinking. Grand Staircase of the RMS Titanic International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea International Maritime Organization List of crew members on board RMS Titanic List of films about the RMS Titanic List of shipwrecks MS Hans Hedtoft, a ship sunk by an iceberg on her maiden voyage in 1959. Passengers of the RMS Titanic RMS Titanic alternative theories (Theories about the sinking including a coal fire aboard ship and Titanic hitting pack ice rather than an iceberg.) RMS Titanic in popular culture RMS Titanic Historical Society RMS Titanic Lifeboat No. 6 SS Nomadic, former tender to RMS Titanic and Olympic. Voyage of the Damned (Doctor Who) ReferencesExplanatory notes1.^ The Titanic's 25 March 1912 Liverpool Transcript of Register for Transmission to Registrar-General of Shipping and Seamen listed her speed as 21 knots (39 km/h; 24 mph). 2.^ Of the rescued, the last living was Millvina Dean who died in May 2009. 3.^ It was later rumoured that the (overwhelmingly Protestant) shipworkers at the yard had assigned it the number 390904 which, held up to a mirror, looks somewhat like the words "NO POPE" – but this was in fact untrue.[28] 4.^ Measurement of lifeboats: 1–2: 25'2" long by 7'2" wide by 3'2" deep; 326.6 cubic feet (9.25 m3); 3–16: 30' long by 9'1" wide by 4' deep; 655.2 cubic feet (18.55 m3) and A–D: 27'5" long by 8' wide by 3' deep; 376.6 cubic feet (10.66 m3) 5.^ Hard bottom boats with canvas sides that were held by a top frame 6.^ 16 lifeboats were the minimum required by the Board of Trade, based on Titanic's projected tonnage and passenger manifests from Olympic's 1911 voyages which were usually no more than 1100 people per passage[78] 7.^ Since 1894, when the largest passenger ship under consideration was the Cunard Line's 13,000 ton Lucania, the Board of Trade had made no provision to increase the existing scale regarding the number of required lifeboats for larger ships, such as the 46,000 ton Titanic. Sir Alfred Chalmers, nautical adviser to the Board of Trade from 1896 to 1911, had considered the matter of adjusting the scale "from time to time", but because he not only assumed that experienced sailors would need to be carried "uselessly" aboard ship only to lower and man the extra lifeboats, but also anticipated the difficulty in getting away a greater number than 16 boats in any emergency, he "did not consider it necessary to increase [the scale]".[81] 8.^ John Coffey, a 23-year-old stoker, jumped ship at Queenstown by stowing away on a tender and hiding amongst mailbags destined for shore. A native of the town, he had probably joined the ship with this intention, but afterwards he said that the reason he had smuggled himself off the liner was that he held a foreboding about the voyage.[96] 9.^ Known afterward as the "Unsinkable Molly Brown" due to her efforts in helping other passengers while the ship sank 10.^ Times given are in ship time, the local time for Titanic's position in the Atlantic. On the night of the sinking, this was approximately one and a half hours ahead of EST and three and a half hours behind GMT 11.^ For centuries the order to “Starboard the helm, Port the helm” has caused the ship's head to go in the opposite direction, the practice having come down through the centuries when tillers were in use.[104] 12.^ SOS had successfully been used to summon help for the White Star Liner Republic which sank in 1909 after colliding with the liner SS Florida. 13.^ According to Butler it could not have been the Samson[115] 14.^ U.S. immigration regulations of the time required complete isolation of third class passengers. As a result, the route to the boat deck through the higher classes of accommodation was quite inefficient—so much so that third-class steward John Hart had to guide E-deck passengers up to the boat deck in two trips, leaving many passengers still below decks when the ship sank.[134][135] 15.^ In 1990, following the discovery of the wreck, the Marine Accident Investigation Branch of the British Department of Transport re-opened the inquiry to review the evidence relating to Californian. Its report of 1992 concluded that Californian was farther from Titanic than the earlier British inquiry had found, and that the distress rockets, but not Titanic herself, would have been visible from Californian.[137] 16.^ Most of the bodies were numbered, however, the five passengers buried at sea by Carpathia went unnumbered.[140] 17.^ Thomas Beattie, a first class passenger, and two crew members, a fireman and a seaman. 18.^ A salvage attempt for a part of the hull was made in 1996. However, the attempt failed after the part had been towed below the surface for 4 days and it fell back to the bottom.[146] 19.^ See in particular 20269 ff. of Wilding's testimony, cited above. Wilding was of the view that the momentum of the ship would have crushed in the bows for 80 or perhaps 100 feet, thus slowing the ship gradually, about the same as a car braking. This part of his testimony is at Titanic inquiry project. 20.^ The length quoted approximates to the vessel's waterline length. 21.^ During design of the ship, it was anticipated that the British Board of Trade might require an increase in the number of lifeboats at some future date. Therefore, lifeboat davits capable of handling up to four boats per pair of davits were designed and installed, to give a total potential capacity of 64 boats.[183] However, the additional boats were never fitted. 22.^ An example is Daniel Butler's book: "Unsinkable" about the RMS Titanic 23.^ Earlier on during the sinking more cheerful songs were played like ragtimes.[193] Notes1.^ Chirnside 2004, p. 142. 2.^ a b Chirnside 2004, p. 24. 3.^ Wilson 1986, p. 34. 4.^ a b c d e f g h i Chirnside 2004, p. 319. 5.^ Chirnside 2004, p. 143. 6.^ a b c Brewster & Coulter 1998, p. 45. 7.^ "GSN Global Ship Numbering System : details". Gsn.ncl.ac.uk. http://gsn.ncl.ac.uk/?p=details&officialno=131428. Retrieved 31 July 2010. 8.^ National Museums Northern Ireland 2011, p. Loss. 9.^ Gulf of Maine Aquarium 2011, p. The grave of the Titanic. 10.^ Beveridge & al. 2009, p. Chapter 1. 11.^ a b c d Lord 2005, p. 148. 12.^ Hutchings & de Kerbrech 2011, p. 46. 13.^ a b Beveridge & Hall 2004, p. 1. 14.^ Chirnside 2004, p. 43. 15.^ Spignesi 1998, p. 6. 16.^ Butler 2002, p. 238. 17.^ Hutchings & de Kerbrech 2011, p. 61. 18.^ a b Hutchings & de Kerbrech 2011, p. 112. 19.^ Beveridge & Hall 2011, p. 27. 20.^ Bartlett 2011, p. 26. 21.^ a b Bartlett 2011, p. 25. 22.^ a b Hutchings & de Kerbrech 2011, p. 12. 23.^ Hutchings & de Kerbrech 2011, p. 14. 24.^ "Testimony of Alexander Carlisle". British Wreck Commissioner's Inquiry. 30 July 1912. http://www.titanicinquiry.org/BOTInq/BOTInq20Carlisle01.php. Retrieved 8 November 2008. 25.^ McCluskie 1998, p. 20. 26.^ Eaton & Haas 1995, p. 55. 27.^ Eaton & Haas 1995, p. 56. 28.^ Lord 1986, p. 27. 29.^ a b McCluskie 1998, p. 22. 30.^ a b c Hutchings & de Kerbrech 2011, p. 47. 31.^ Gill 2010, p. 229. 32.^ a b c d e f g Hutchings & de Kerbrech 2011, p. 48. 33.^ Gill 2010, p. 232. 34.^ Gill 2010, p. 233. 35.^ Gill 2010, p. 235. 36.^ a b Gill 2010, p. 236. 37.^ a b Gill 2010, p. 237. 38.^ Gill 2010, p. 78. 39.^ Eaton & Haas 1992, p. 56. 40.^ Hutchings & de Kerbrech 2011, p. 42. 41.^ Hutchings & de Kerbrech 2011, p. 43. 42.^ a b Hutchings & de Kerbrech 2011, p. 44. 43.^ Gill 2010, p. 87. 44.^ Gill 2010, p. 104. 45.^ Gill 2010, p. 107. 46.^ Gill 2010, p. 105. 47.^ Gill 2010, p. 109. 48.^ a b Hutchings & de Kerbrech 2011, p. 15. 49.^ a b c Bartlett 2011, p. 33. 50.^ Hutchings & de Kerbrech 2011, p. 18. 51.^ Gill 2010, p. 120. 52.^ a b Gill 2010, p. 121. 53.^ Hutchings & de Kerbrech 2011, p. 79. 54.^ Hutchings & de Kerbrech 2011, p. 80. 55.^ a b Gill 2010, p. 126. 56.^ a b Gill 2010, p. 148. 57.^ Hutchings & de Kerbrech 2011, p. 86. 58.^ Hutchings & de Kerbrech 2011, p. 85. 59.^ Hutchings & de Kerbrech 2011, p. 96. 60.^ Gill 2010, p. 127. 61.^ a b c Hutchings & de Kerbrech 2011, p. 74. 62.^ Hutchings & de Kerbrech 2011, p. 106. 63.^ Hutchings & de Kerbrech 2011, p. 107. 64.^ Hutchings & de Kerbrech 2011, p. 68. 65.^ a b Hutchings & de Kerbrech 2011, p. 70. 66.^ Gill 2010, p. 165. 67.^ Gill 2010, p. 162. 68.^ Hutchings & de Kerbrech 2011, p. 57. 69.^ a b Gill 2010, p. 182. 70.^ Wels 1997, p. 34. 71.^ "3rd Class General Room". National Museums Northern Ireland. 2011. http://www.nmni.com/titanic/On-Board/Activities-on-board/3rd-Class-General-Room.aspx. Retrieved 28 May 2011. 72.^ "1st Class Cafe Parisien". National Museums Northern Ireland. 2011. http://www.nmni.com/titanic/On-Board/Eating/1st-Class-Cafe-Parisien.aspx. Retrieved 28 May 2011. 73.^ Gill 2010, p. 187. 74.^ Gill 2010, p. 201. 75.^ a b Gill 2010, p. 189. 76.^ a b Lord 1997, p. 78. 77.^ "Alexander Carlisle's testimony (question 21449)". British Wreck Commissioner's Inquiry. 30 July 1912. http://www.titanicinquiry.org/BOTInq/BOTInq20Carlisle02.php. Retrieved 21 July 2009. 78.^ Eaton & Haas 1990, p. ?. 79.^ a b c d e C. Hackett; J. G. Bedford; Royal Institution of Naval Architects; Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland (1996). The sinking of S.S. Titanic: investigated by modern techniques. Royal Institution of Naval Architects. http://books.google.com/books?id=i3xcGwAACAAJ. Retrieved 5 June 2011. [dead link] 80.^ Butler 1998, p. 38. 81.^ a b c "Board of Trade's Administration". British Wreck Commissioner's Inquiry. 30 July 1912. http://www.titanicinquiry.org/BOTInq/BOTReport/BOTRepBOT.php. Retrieved 9 November 2008. 82.^ Beveridge & Hall 2004, p. 110. 83.^ Miller 2001, p. ?. 84.^ McCluskie 1998, p. 21. 85.^ Spignesi 1998, p. 22. 86.^ Eaton & Haas 1995, p. 44. 87.^ Eaton & Haas 1995, p. 44 and 46. 88.^ Chirnside 2004, pp. 39-40. 89.^ Eaton & Haas 1995, p. 45. 90.^ Eaton & Haas 1995, p. 46. 91.^ Brewster & Coulter 1998, p. 16. 92.^ Brewster & Coulter 1998, p. 22. 93.^ Brewster & Coulter 1998, pp. 24-27. 94.^ Brewster & Coulter 1998, p. 24. 95.^ Brewster & Coulter 1998, pp. 17, 20. 96.^ Barczewski 2006, p. 282. 97.^ "Titanic Passenger List First Class Passengers". Encyclopedia Titanica. http://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/titanic-first-class-passengers/. Retrieved 24 November 2008. 98.^ Chernow (2001) Chapter 8 99.^ Brewster & Coulter 1998, pp. 18. 100.^ McCluskie/Sharpe/Marriott 1999, p. 490. 101.^ Butler 1998, pp. 61-62. 102.^ Dr. Ballard 1987, p. 20. 103.^ Butler 1998, p. 63. 104.^ Nature 1933, pp. 20–21. 105.^ Maltin & Aston 2010, p. 89. 106.^ "Testimony of Robert Hichens (Quartermaster, SS Titanic)". British Wreck Commissioner's Inquiry. http://www.titanicinquiry.org/BOTInq/BOTInq03Hichens01.php. Retrieved 29 May 2011. 107.^ "United States Senate Enquiry: Testimony of Alfred Olliver". Titanicinquiry.org. 1912-04-25. http://www.titanicinquiry.org/USInq/AmInq07Olliver01.php. Retrieved 2012-01-14. 108.^ a b Brewster & Coulter 1998, p. 43. 109.^ "Time in which damage was done". British Wreck Commissioner's Inquiry. 30 July 1912. http://www.titanicinquiry.org/BOTInq/BOTReport/BOTRepTime.php. Retrieved 1 June 2011. 110.^ a b "Pleas For Help – Distress Calls Heard". United States Senate Inquiry Report. http://www.titanicinquiry.org/USInq/USReport/AmInqRep06.php#a1. Retrieved 24 November 2008. 111.^ Barczewski 2006, p. 32. 112.^ "Distress calls sent and received, timeline". Greatships.net. http://www.greatships.net/distress.html. Retrieved 29 January 2011. 113.^ Lord 2005, p. 61. 114.^ "The Californian". Echoes of the Titanic Disaster – Web Titanic, an Irish Tribute. http://www.webtitanic.net/framecal.html. Retrieved 4 March 2010. 115.^ Butler 2002, p. 242. 116.^ a b c d "STEAMSHIP LIGHT SEEN FROM STEAMSHIP TITANIC & STEAMSHIP CALIFORNIAN'S RESPONSIBILITY". United States Senate Inquiry Report. Titanic Inquiry Project. http://www.titanicinquiry.org/USInq/USReport/AmInqRep06.php#a5. Retrieved 24 November 2008. 117.^ Lord 2005, p. 23. 118.^ Brewster & Coulter 2002, p. 47. 119.^ Brewster & Coulter 2002, p. 48. 120.^ Lord 1997, p. 88. 121.^ "Testimony of John E. Hart". British Wreck Commissioner's Inquiry. 30 July 1912. http://www.titanicinquiry.org/BOTInq/BOTInq09Hart01.php. Retrieved 4 June 2011. 122.^ a b W. Garzke et al. [Marine Forensic Panel (SD 7)]: Titanic, The Anatomy of a Disaster. The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 1997. 123.^ Wreck Commissioners' Court: PROCEEDINGS ON A FORMAL INVESTIGATION ORDERED BY THE BOARD OF TRADE INTO THE LOSS OF THE S. S. “TITANIC”, London 1912 124.^ Lord 2005, p. 150. 125.^ Eaton & Haas 1999, p. 98. 126.^ "Sufferers' Fund Grows by Leaps and Bounds". New-York Tribune. 20 April 1912, p.5.. 127.^ Landau, Elaine (2001). Heroine of the Titanic: The Real Unsinkable Molly Brown. New York. pp. 22–23. http://books.google.com/books?id=mbCF5L1sm94C&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false. 128.^ a b 3/25/66393.html "Gloom in Southampton". The Hampshire Chronicle. 1912. http://archive.thisishampshire.net/2002/ 3/25/66393.html. Retrieved 8 November 2008. [dead link] 129.^ "White Star Line Head Office". Titanic Town. http://www.titanictown.plus.com/titanictown/white_star_line_office.htm. Retrieved 19 April 2011. 130.^ Holdaway, F. W. (19 April 1912). "Winchester "titanic relief fund"". The Hampshire Chronicle. http://archive.thisishampshire.net/2002/3/25/66345.html. Retrieved 8 November 2008. [dead link] 131.^ New York Times; Tuesday 30 April 1912 "GEORGE VANDERBILT'S ESCAPE.; Mrs. Dresser Persuaded Him Not to Sail on Titanic—Footman Lost." (in PDF format) 132.^ a b "Titanic – The Senatorial Investigation". United States Senate Inquiry. http://www.logoi.com/notes/titanic/senatorial_investigation.html. Retrieved 19 June 2010. 133.^ Butler 1998, pp. 180-186. 134.^ Butler 1998, pp. 104-105. 135.^ Butler 1998, p. 122. 136.^ a b "Circumstances in Connection with the SS Californian". British Wreck Commissioner's Inquiry Report. Titanic Inquiry Project. http://www.titanicinquiry.org/BOTInq/BOTReport/BOTRepCalifornian.php. Retrieved 19 June 2010. 137.^ Marine Accident Investigation Branch 1992, p. ?. 138.^ Butler 2002, pp. 238-239. 139.^ a b c d "Numbers Saved". British Wreck Commissioner's Inquiry. 30 July 1912. http://www.titanicinquiry.org/BOTInq/BOTReport/BOTRepSaved.php. Retrieved 5 June 2011. 140.^ "RMS Titanic: List of Bodies and Disposition of Same". Nova Scotia Archives and Records Management. http://www.gov.ns.ca/nsarm/cap/titanic/. Retrieved 3 March 2008. 141.^ "Testimony of Harold G. Lowe (Fifth Officer, SS Titanic)". British Wreck Commissioner's Inquiry. http://www.titanicinquiry.org/BOTInq/BOTInq13Lowe01.php. Retrieved 1 June 2011. 142.^ "Echo of Disaster : Boat Picked Up Bodies On Board". Encyclopedia Titanica. http://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/echo-disaster-boat-picked-up-bodies-board.html. Retrieved 1 June 2011. 143.^ "Maritime Museum of the Atlantic Titanic Research Page – Victims". Museum.gov.ns.ca. 8 November 2010. http://museum.gov.ns.ca/mma/research/titanicfaq.html#victims. Retrieved 29 January 2011. 144.^ a b Mowbray, Jay Henry (1912). "CHAPTER XXI. THE FUNERAL SHIP AND ITS DEAD". The sinking of the Titanic (1912). http://gaslight.mtroyal.ca/titnch21.htm. Retrieved 24 November 2008. 145.^ Ruffman 1999, p. ?. 146.^ Butler 1998, pp. 217-218. 147.^ Ballard 1985, p. 704. 148.^ a b Wels 1997, p. 143. 149.^ Rubin 1987, pp. 65–69. 150.^ Geller, Arnie 2007, p. 1,2,10,11. 151.^ "The Titanic disaster". National Museums Liverpool. http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/maritime/collections/liners/titanic/index.aspx#objects. Retrieved 19 April 2011. 152.^ Geller, Arnie 2007, p. 11. 153.^ White, Marcia. "Battle continues on fate of relics from doomed ship Titanic". lehighvalleylive.com, 24 March 2009. Retrieved 8 September 2009. 154.^ "Federal judge to rule on fate of Titanic artifacts". USA Today. 24 March 2009. http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2009-03-24-titanic-artifacts_N.htm. 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OCLC 316100301. 165.^ In Weak Rivets, a Possible Key to Titanic’s Doom, The New York Times, 15 April 2008: Figure 3, "Not So Unsinkable", clearly shows the steel/iron rivet boundaries and the tears in the hull. 166.^ Beveridge 2008, p. 334. 167.^ Louden-Brown, Paul (1 April 2002). "Titanic: Sinking the Myths". British History. BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/britain_wwone/titanic_02.shtml. Retrieved 20 June 2005. 168.^ Brown 2000, p. 77. 169.^ Gibson, Richard Henry; Prendergast, Maurice (1931). The German submarine war, 1914–1918. Constable. p. 304. ISBN 9781591143147. http://books.google.com/?id=cfPd9MA6NWYC&pg=PA304&lpg=PA304&dq=olympic+rams+submarine#v=onepage&q=A%20shot%20from%20the%20Olympic's&f=false. Retrieved 3 May 2011. 170.^ Maltin & Aston 2010, p. 87. 171.^ "Testimony of Joseph G. Boxhall". British Wreck Commissioner's Inquiry. 30 July 1912. http://www.titanicinquiry.org/BOTInq/BOTInq13Boxhall01.php. 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The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1997/04/21/movies/hollywood-braces-for-likely-delay-of-titanic.html?pagewanted=1. 188.^ "Session Timeout – Academy Awards Database – AMPAS". Awardsdatabase.oscars.org. http://awardsdatabase.oscars.org/ampas_awards/DisplayMain.jsp?curTime=1246067553582. Retrieved July 28, 2009. 189.^ "All Time Worldwide Box Office Grosses". Box Office Mojo. http://boxofficemojo.com/alltime/world/. Retrieved July 28, 2009. 190.^ "Cameron does it again as 'Avatar' surpasses 'Titanic'". Cablevision. 3 February 2010. http://www.newsday.com/entertainment/movies/cameron-does-it-again-as-avatar-surpasses-titanic-1.1741190. Retrieved 26 October 2010. 191.^ "AFI's Top Ten Epic". American Film Institute. http://connect.afi.com/site/DocServer/TOP10.pdf?docID=441. Retrieved January 19, 2010. 192.^ Staff (19 April 1912). "Lead Article". The Engineer. 193.^ Butler 1998, p. 91. 194.^ Campbell 2008, p. 210. 195.^ "The British Postal Museum & Archive online catalogue". Catalogue.postalheritage.org.uk. http://catalogue.postalheritage.org.uk/dserve/dserve.exe?dsqServer=localhost&dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqCmd=Show.tcl&dsqDb=Catalog&dsqPos=0&dsqSearch=((text)='titanic'). Retrieved 29 January 2011. 196.^ "Titanic Memorial – Cobh". http://www.titanic-titanic.com/titanic_memorial-cobh.shtml. 197.^ a b c "Titanic Connections with Liverpool". Encyclopedia Titanica. http://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/titanic-connections-with-liverpool.html. Retrieved 19 April 2011. 198.^ "Titanic fans want Belfast memorial to be relocated". Encyclopedia Titanica (5 June 2009). http://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/newsview.php?pageNum_rs_news=129&totalRows_rs_news=649&news=1244210169. Retrieved 4 July 2009. 199.^ "Titanic tourist project unveiled". BBC News. 11 August 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/4141684.stm. 200.^ "Women's Titanic Memorial — Washington, DC". GLTS. 26 May 1931. http://www.glts.org/memorials/dc/womens.html. Retrieved 31 July 2010. 201.^ Gibberd, Ben (19 November 2006). "Taking Refuge Beneath Memory’s Gaze". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/11/19/nyregion/thecity/19stre.html. Retrieved 8 October 2009. 202.^ Homepage of Titanic Historical Society Inc. Retrieved 21 February 2012 203.^ "Titanic: The Artifact Exhibition" (official website). http://www.titanictix.com/. 204.^ "Titanic launch 100th anniversary marked by Belfast flare". The Daily Telegraph, UK (London). 31 May 2011. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/northernireland/8547713/Titanic-launch-100th-anniversary-marked-by-Belfast-flare.html. Retrieved 31 May 2011. 205.^ "Paramount Pictures, Twentieth Century Fox and Lightstorm Entertainment to Set Sail Again with James Cameron's Oscar-Winning "Titanic" with a Worldwide 3D Re-release on April 6, 2012" (Press release). Paramount Pictures. May 19, 2011. http://www.paramount.com/news/press-releases/paramount-pictures-twentieth-century-fox-and-lightstorm-entertainment-to-set-sail-again-with-james-c. Retrieved May 19, 2011. 206.^ ITV: Titanic. Retrieved: 2012-01-13 207.^ "Robin Gibb to honour Titanic victims in first 'classical' composition". The Guardian. 20 January 2012. http://www.guardian.co.uk/music/2012/jan/20/robin-gibb-titanic-victims-classical-piece-1. 208.^ "Cruise to mark Titanic centenary". BBC News. 15 April 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/northern_ireland/7999110.stm. BibliographyAdams, Simon (2009) [1999]. Eyewitness, Titanic. New York: DK Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7566-5036-0. Ballard, R D; Archbold, R (1987). The Discovery of the Titanic. New York: Warner Books. ISBN 0-446-51385-7. Barczewski, Stephanie (2006). Titanic: A Night Remembered. London: Hambledon Continuum. ISBN 9781852855000. http://books.google.com/?id=lBQWD4fhCN4C&pg=PA134&dq=Titanic+last+song#v=onepage&q=Titanic%20last%20song&f=false. Barratt, Nick (2009). Lost Voices From the Titanic: The Definitive Oral History. London: Random House. ISBN 978-1-84809-151-1. Bartlett, W.B. (2011). Titanic: 9 Hours to Hell, the Survivors' Story. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Amberley Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4456-0482-4. Beesley, Lawrence (1912). The Loss of the S.S. Titanic. London: Heinemann. Beveridge, Bruce (2008). Titanic – The Ship Magnificent (Volume 1). Stroud: The History Press. ISBN 9780752446066. Beveridge, Bruce; Andrews, Scott (2009). Braunschweiger, Art. ed. Titanic: The Ship Magnificent. I. Gloucestershire, United Kingdom: History Press. ISBN 9780752446066. http://www.titanic-theshipmagnificent.com/synopsis/chapter01/. Retrieved 25 May 2011. Beveridge, Bruce; Hall, Steve (2004). Olympic & Titanic: The Truth Behind the Conspiracy. Haverford, Pennsylvania: Infinity Publishing. ISBN 0741419491, 9780741419491. http://books.google.com/?id=6r0_PKEE3dwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Olympic+and+Titanic#v=onepage&q=skid%20lights&f=false. Beveridge, Bruce; Hall, Steve (2011). "Description of the ship". In Halpern, Samuel. Report into the Loss of the SS Titanic: A Centennial Reappraisal. Stroud, UK: The History Press. ISBN 978-0-7524-6210-3. Brewster, Hugh; Coulter, Laurie (1998). 8821⁄2 Amazing Answers to your Questions about the Titanic. Madison Press Book. ISBN 0-590-18730-9. Brown, David G. (2000). The Last Log of the Titanic. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 0071364471. http://books.google.com/?id=qB8cq3VsKSsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Last+Log+of+the+Titanic#v=onepage&q&f=false. Bryson, Dave (1997). The Titanic disaster. Sparkford, England: Patrick Stephens Limited. ISBN 1 85260 579 0. Bullock, Shan F. (1912). Thomas Andrews, Shipbuilder. Dublin: Maunsel and Co. Butler, Daniel Allen (1998). Unsinkable: the full story of the RMS Titanic. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books. ISBN 0-8117-1814-X. http://books.google.com/?id=JIj1Hu4BGLIC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Butler,+Daniel+%281998%29.+Unsinkable:+the+full+story+of+the+RMS+Titanic.#v=onepage&q&f=false. Butler, Daniel Allen (2002) [1998]. Unsinkable: the full story of the RMS Titanic. USA: Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-81110-3. Campbell, Ballard C. (2008). Disaster, Accidents and Crises in American History: A Reference Guide to the Nation's Most Catastrophic Events. Facts on File Library of American History. New York: Infobase Publishing. ISBN 9780816066032. http://books.google.com/?id=VitlO1mWxzAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Disaster,+Accidents+and+Crises+in+American+History:+A+Reference+Guide+to+the+Nation%27s+Most+Catastrophic+Event#v=onepage&q&f=false. Cassidy, Michael J. (2003). "The Sinking of the Titanic". In Hall, Randolph W.. Handbook of Transportation Science. Amsterdam Netherlands: Kluwer. ISBN 1402072465. Chernow, Ron (2010). The House of Morgan: An American Banking Dynasty and the Rise of Modern Finance. New York: Grove Press. ISBN 978-0802144652. Chirnside, Mark (2004). The Olympic-Class Ships. Stroud, England: Tempus. ISBN 0752428683. Davenport-Hines, Richard (2012). Titanic Lives: Migrants and Millionaires, Conmen and Crew. UK: HarperCollins. Eaton, John P.; Haas, Charles A. (1990). Falling Star: The Misadventures of White Star Line Ships. W.W. Norton. ISBN 9780-3930-2873-7. Eaton, John P.; Haas, Charles A. (1995). Titanic: Triumph and Tragedy. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-03697-9. http://books.google.com/?id=uia8zRfX1koC&pg=PA6&dq=RMS+Titanic+sea+trials#v=onepage&q=sea%20trials&f=false. Eaton, John P.; Haas, Charles A. (1996). Titanic: Destination Disaster: The Legends and the Reality. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-03697-9. http://books.google.com/?id=iLI43mWtZRkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Titanic:+Destination+Disaster:+the+Legends+and+the+Reality,#v=onepage&q=ice%20field&f=false. Eaton, John P.; Haas, Charles A. (1999). Titanic: A Journey through Time. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393047822, 9780393047820. http://books.google.com/?id=8UOtbCmR5NgC&pg=PA85&dq=Carpathia+arrives+in+New+York+with+Titanic+survivors#v=onepage&q=Carpathia%20arrives%20in%20New%20York%20with%20Titanic%20survivors&f=false. Geller, Judith B (1998). "Titanic": Women and Children First. New York: Norton. Gill, Anton (2010). Titanic : the real story of the construction of the world's most famous ship. Channel 4 Books. ISBN 978-1-9050-2671-5. Howells, Richard (1999). The Myth of the Titanic. United Kingdom: MacMillan Press. ISBN 0333725972. Hutchings, David F.; de Kerbrech, Richard P. (2011). RMS Titanic 1909–12 (Olympic Class): Owners' Workshop Manual. Sparkford, Yeovil: Haynes. ISBN 9781844256624. Lightoller, Charles (1936). "Loss of the Titanic". Titanic and Other Ships. London: I. Nicholson and Watson. OCLC 9353219. http://www.titanic-titanic.com/titanic_and_other_ships_30.shtml. Lord, Walter (1997) [1955]. A Night to Remember (3rd ed.). New York: Henry Holt and Company. ISBN 0-553-27827-4. http://books.google.com/?id=jiWUlzNdwWIC&pg=PR11&dq=Lord,+Walter+%281997%29.+A+Night+to+Remember#v=onepage&q=Boat%20B&f=false. Lord, Walter (2005) [1955]. A Night to Remember. New York: St. Martin's Griffin. ISBN 978-0-8050-7764-3. Lord, Walter (1987). The Night Lives On. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-670-81452-0. Maltin, Tim (2010). 101 Things You Thought You Knew About the Titanic...But Didn't. London: Beautiful Books. ISBN 1905636687. Marine Accident Investigation Branch. (1992). RMS Titanic Reappraisal of Evidence Relating to SS Californian. London: H.M.S.O.. ISBN 0115511113. McCarty, Jennifer Hooper; Foecke, Tim (2008). What Really Sank the Titanic: New Forensic Discoveries. New York: Citadel Press. ISBN 978-0-806-52895-3. http://books.google.com/?id=_Om2HwAACAAJ&dq=What+Really+Sank+the+Titanic. McCluskie, Tom (1998). Anatomy of the Titanic. London: PRC Publishing. ISBN 1-85648-482-3. McCluskie, Tom; Sharpe, Michael; Marriott, Leo; Sharpe, Mike (1999). Titanic & Her Sisters Olympic & Britannic. California, USA: Thunder Bay Pr. ISBN 1-57145-175-7. Miller, William H. (2001). Picture History of British Ocean Liners, 1900 to the Present. Dover Publications. ISBN 0486415325. Moss, Michael S (2004). "William James Pirrie". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Piantadosi, Claude A. (2003). The biology of human survival: life and death in extreme environments. USA: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195165012. Ruffman, Alan (1999). Titanic Remembered: The Unsinkable Ship and Halifax. Halifax, Canada: Halifax: Formac Publishing. ISBN 0-88780-467-5. Spignesi, Stephen J. (1998). The Complete Titanic: From the Ship's Earliest Blueprints to the Epic Film. Secaucus, New Jersey: Birch Lane Press. ISBN 1-55972-483-8. Spitz, D.J. (2006). Investigation of Bodies in Water. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C Thomas Pub Ltd. ISBN 978-0398058180. Wels, Susan (1997). Titanic: Legacy of the World's Greatest Ocean Liner. Del Mar, California: Tehabi Books. ISBN 0783552610. Wilson, Timothy (1986). "Flags of British Ships other than the Royal Navy". Flags at Sea. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office. p. 34. ISBN 0-11-290389-4. Journals:

Ballard, Robert D. (1985). "How We Found the Titanic". National Geographic 168 (6): 704. Felkins, Katherine; H.P. Leighly, Jr.; A. Jankovic (January 1998). "The Royal Mail Ship Titanic: Did a Metallurgical Failure Cause a Night to Remember?". JOM (Warrendale PA: The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society) 50 (1). doi:10.1007/s11837-998-0062-7. http://www.tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM/9801/Felkins-9801.html. Nature (1933). "The New Helm or Steering Orders". Nature (London) 131 (3297). doi:10.1038/131020c0. Rubin, Sydney (1987). "Treasures of the Titanic". Popular Mechanics (New York: Hearst Magazines) 164 (12): 65–69. ISSN 0032-4558. http://books.google.com/?id=G-MDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA64&dq=Titanic+wreck+debris+field#v=onepage&q=Titanic%20wreck%20debris%20field&f=false. Stephenson, Parks (2001). "The Marconi Wireless Installation in R.M.S. Titanic". Old Timer's Bulletin (The Antique Wireless Association, Inc.) 42 (4). http://marconigraph.com/titanic/wireless/mgy_wireless.html. Web sites:

"Launch of Titanic". National Museums Northern Ireland. 2011. http://www.nmni.com/titanic. Retrieved 30 May 2011. Geller, Arnie (2007). "Premier Exhibitions (NASDAQ: PRXI Annual Report" (PDF). Premier Exhibitions, Inc.. http://www.annualreports.com/HostedData/AnnualReports/PDFArchive/prxi2007.pdf. Retrieved 7 June 2011. "The Grave of the Titanic". Gulf of Maine Aquarium. 2011. http://www.gma.org/space1/titanic.html. Retrieved 31 May 2011. "W.T. Stead & the Titanic". The W.T. Stead Resource Site. http://www.attackingthedevil.co.uk/titanic/index.php. Retrieved 9 June 2011. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to: RMS Titanic

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This audio file was created from a revision of the "RMS Titanic" article dated 2005-12-10, and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article. (Audio help) More spoken articlesBallard, Robert B. Lost Liners BBC Archive: Titanic Footage of RMS Titanic leaving Belfast for Southampton, 1912 International Ice Patrol History Historian's Office, US Coast Guard 24 May 2011 New York Times WHITE STAR PROFITS CUT TO 30%. PBS Online – Lost Liners RMS Titanic at the Open Directory Project RMS Titanic, Inc Corporate information and the official Titanic archive RMS Titanic official page on Facebook with vast collection of links and photos. Some Reflections on the Loss of the Titanic by Joseph Conrad, 1912 Surviving the Titanic – slideshow by Life magazine Titanic Historical Society Titanic: How can a disastrous ship be celebrated? BBC News Magazine The Titanic Disaster, Steamship Lanes, and the Establishment of the Ice Patrol: The 1912 Report of the Hydrographer, U.S. Navy Titanic Historical Society, Indian Orchard, MA, [1]