User:Luxembourg96/sandbox

Effects on the Environment

Lygodium microphyllum causes problems in the environments where it is invasive. The plant damages wetland ecosystems, harming endangered species. The fern's ability to grow up and over trees and shrubs and to form dense horizontal canopies allows it to cover whole communities of plants reducing native plant diversity. Old World climbing fern can grow in many diverse ecosystem. Lygodium microphyllum poses problems for fires, both natural and man-made, because it can lead fire into the tree canopy killing trees. The fern is rapidly spreading in South Florida's public conservation lands.

Containment

Recently, the USDA approved the use of insects to keep the fern contained. These insects (Austromusotima camptozonale, Neomusotima conspurcatalis, and Floracarus perrepae) have been released in several state parks to control the fern. Though some populations were devastated by bout of cold weather. However, Recently, reports of new activity have been made.

Article 2: Pine processionary

Plagiarism

I changed several paragraphs to rephrase the information so it did not mimic the source document.

Plagiarism 1

"The typical cylindrical egg masses range in length from 4 to 5 cm. They are covered with the scales of the female anal tuft, which mimics the pine shoots."

"The eggs of the Moth are laid in cylindrical bodies ranging from 4 cm to 5 cm in length. The eggs are covered with scales which come from the female and mimic pine shoots."

Plagiarism 2

"Pupation takes place in the soil in an oval, ocheous-white silken cocoon. The obtect pupae are about 20 mm in length, oval, and of a pale brownish-yellow colour that later changes to dark reddish-brown."

"The moth's pupal stage occurs in a white silken cocoon under soil. The pupae measure around 20 mm and are a pale brownish-yellow color that changes into a dark reddish-brown."

Plagiarism 3

"The pine processionary adult has cream coloured forewings with brown markings, and white hindwings. The female moth has a wing-span of 36 – 49 mm while the male is 31 – 39 mm."

"As an adult, T. pityocampa has predominately creme-colored fore-wings which have brown markings. The moth's hind-wings are white. Wingspans very depending on the sex of the moth, with females having larger wingspans of 36 mm to 49 mm compared to a male's 31 mm to 39 mm."

Plagiarism 4

"The life cycle of the pine processionary is normally annual but may extend over 2 years at high altitude or in northern latitudes for part or the whole of the population. The life cycle has two phases, the adult, egg and caterpillar being aerial and the pupa hypogeal.Moths lay their eggs high on pine trees. After hatching, the larvae go through five instars, eating pine needles. They build white silken nests to maintain ideal living conditions. Around the end of March the caterpillars are ready to leave their nests and move down the tree in a characteristic procession. They dig underground and pupate, emerging at the end of the summer."

"Though most pine processionary moths only live one year, some in high altitudes or norther areas may survive for over two years. The adult moths lay their eggs near the tops of pine trees. After hatching, the larva eat pine needles while progressing through five stages of development. In order to maintain beneficial living conditions, silken nests are built over the winter. Around the beginning of April, the caterpillars leave the nests in the procession for which the species is known. They burrow underground and emerge at the end of summer."

Plagiarism 5

"The caterpillars are highly social. At first they are nomadic, spinning and abandoning a series of flimsy shelters constructed by enveloping a few needles in silk but in the third instar they initiate the construction of a permanent nest or "tent" and settle down to become central place foragers. There are no definitive openings in the shelter that allow the caterpillars to enter and exit. Rather, the caterpillars force their way through the layers of the shelter as they move in and out. The frass that is produced as the caterpillars process their meals accumulates at the bottom of the tent"

"T. pityocampa is a highly social organism. Throughout its life cycle, a pine processionary will make several shelters. The first of these are flimsy and temporary, but in the third instar, they build a permanent nest. Once their permanent nest is built, the caterpillars become foragers staying in the vicinity of the nest. The nest has no openings, so catterpillars force themselves through the layers of the shelter. The waste from the larvae's diet accumulates at the bottom of the nest."

Plagiarism 6

"Colonies are active throughout the winter months. Activity records of colonies foraging in pine forests in mountainous regions near Barcelona, Spain, obtained with infrared activity monitors, show that the caterpillars leave their nests soon after sunset and travel to distant feeding sites on the branches of the host tree. There, they feed overnight then return to the nest at dawn. Observations in mid-winter show that the caterpillars forage on the coldest of nights and can locomote, although very slowly, at sub-zero temperatures. The permanent nests are typically sited to intercept solar radiation and during sunny days warm to well above ambient temperatures. The caterpillars rest in the nest during the day and at the elevated body temperatures they experience due to heating of the nest by the sun can efficiently digest the food they collect overnight. By March, the caterpillars are in the fifth instar and are fully grown. Then they leave their nest, following each other in long head to tail processions and seek out pupation sites in the soil."

"Terrence Fitzgerald, professor of Biological Science at the University of New York, has written, "Colonies are active throughout the winter months. Activity records of colonies foraging in pine forests in mountainous regions near Barcelona, Spain, obtained with infrared activity monitors, show that the caterpillars leave their nests soon after sunset and travel to distant feeding sites on the branches of the host tree. There, they feed overnight then return to the nest at dawn." The caterpillars have been observed foraging on the coldest nights and can move at sub-zero temperatures. The nests are positioned so that they can be warmed by the sun. The caterpillars rest during the day and the heat in the nest helps them to digest their food. When they emerge from their nests in late March, they are fully grown and leave their nest processing towards pupation sites in the ground."

Plagiarism 7

"The caterpillars of the pine processionary are highly urticating in the third and subsequent instars. Contact with the hairs causes skin rashes and eye irritations. Susceptible individuals may also develop an allergic response to a protein associated with the hairs of the caterpillar."

"Towards the end of their larval development, pine processionary caterpillars are highly irritating to the skin. Contact with the hairs of the caterpillar can cause rashes and eye irritation. Some individuals may have an allergic reaction to the caterpillar's hairs."

Additions

I added to a new section entitled "Impact of foraging." The section was supported by two new citations.

The pine processionary caterpillar is responsible for most of the defoliation of southern Europe. Although pines are most susceptible to the caterpillar, other trees such as larches are also vulnerable. The caterpillars can completely defoliate trees if large quantities are present.

Links to Wikipedia

I linked pupal stage to the Wikipedia page for the pupa stage of development.

I linked instar to the instar Wikipedia page.

Other Edits

I moved adult to after pupa where it would be in the life cycle of the insect. I did the same with larvae and egg. I moved life cycle to the top of this group and made the stages sub headings beneath it.

Article 3: Japanese marten

Citation 1

"The Japanese marten (Martes melampus) is a mammal in the marten genus most closely related to the sable. It is half a meter (1½ feet) in length on average, not counting a 20-centimeter-long tail (7.9 in), and between 1,000 and 1,500 grams (2.2 and 3.3 lb) in weight. Males are generally larger than females. The pelage varies in color from dark brown to dull yellow with a cream-colored throat."

Citation 2

"Both males and females are territorial, the size of each individual's territory depending on food availability. The Japanese marten is omnivorous, preferring meat from fish, frogs, and small birds and mammals, but consuming insects, fruit, and seeds when necessary. "

Citation 3 and Correction

The original says there are three subspecies; however, only two have been confirmed.

"There are two confirmed subspecies of Japanese marten:

• M. m. melampus lives on several of the Japanese islands.
• M. m. tsuensis is found on Tsushima Island, where it is legally protected."

Addition 1

I created a section entitled "Reproduction and life cycle" with two citations.

"Japanese martins have a breeding season which occurs between March and the middle of May. They usually produce one offspring; however, they can have anywhere between one to five kits per mating season. The offspring are born blind and deaf. As a mammal, the female produces milk for her young offspring, but by three to four months of age the kits are able to hunt and soon leave their mother. Sexual maturity occurs between one and two years. Average lifespan in the wild is unknown although a specimen in captivity live for a little more than twelve years.

After reaching maturity, young martens often try to establish their territory. They mark their territory with scent marking."

Addition 2

I created a section entitle "Habitat" with one citation.

"Japanese martens live in boreal forests in much of Japan's mainland. In the winter, martens tend to go to the forests where they can get the most prey. They tend to choose well-established forests because of the ways the creatures have specialized and due to their long life-span. As such, it has been suggested that martens are valuable in accessing the health of the forest. However, in the summer, their habitat and diet become much more generalized allowing them to live in a much more varied environment.

Addition 3

I created a section entitled "Benefits to the environment" with one Citation.

One of the biggest roles martens play in the environment is seed dispersal. Many fleshy fruits rely on birds and bats to disperse their seeds; however, in more northern climates the numbers of these species decrease. With the decrease of these species, there also comes a decrease in seed dispersal. In these areas, carnivores with omnivorous diets, like the Japanese marten, can become the vector of dispersal. These carnivores prove to be good dispersal mechanisms because they often have large home ranges leading to dispersal farther from the parent. Furthermore, since the carnivores are usually larger than birds or bats, the can carry and disperse larger seeds. A study in 2000 found that around 62% of the Japanese marten's feces contained one or more seeds.

Addition 4

I created a section entitled "Affects on humans" with one citation

Japanese martens have both positive and negative impacts on human activities in their habitats. As a positive, the martens prey on Lepus brachyurus which lower the quality of trees by their browsing. However, in their prey also can include many insects which aid agriculture.

Addition 5

I created a section entitle "Threats and conservation efforts" with one citation.

The biggest threat to the Japanese marten is the logging industry which targets its preferred habitat of well established forests. The industry often clear cuts forests quickly destroying the creatures habitat without allowing it to recover. This practice also causes insularization of marten populations causing changes in foraging behaviors and the decrease of the genetic pool. Furthermore, pine plantations in their ecosystems do not contain important food for the martens.

Steps have been taken to try to conserve the martens. The most common are regulations on trapping. The species has been named as a Natural Monument Species in Japan in 1971 calling for attention to the species vulnerability. The species also has been given legal protection on the Tushima Islands.

Links

Links have been included throughout my additions.

Article 4: Formica

Addition 1

I added information about the size of the average member of the genus formica with reference.

Ants of the genus formica tend to be between 4 to 8mm long.

Addition 2

I added information about the habitat of the species as it relates to humans.

In more suburban landscapes, they tend to nest near structures like sidewalks, fences, or building foundations.

Addition 3

I added information about the social aspects of ants in general with more percise studies on formica. With links and citations.

Ants are eusocial organisms meaning that the individuals of the species work together in order to survive and to produce the next generation. Ants work together in order to accomplish tasks which cannot be accomplished alone. Unlike other some ants, the genus Formica does not have separate castes, which are based on an individuals specialization and morphology. For example, Formica selysi, a species native to floodplains, have developed a method to deal with flooding. Individual ants come together to form a living raft in order to survive the flood. Recent studies have shown that individual ants tend to take the position in the raft which they were in the past. This return to the same role in the raft is an example of specialization.