User:Luipaardgekko/Neo-Taínoness

Neo-Taínoness is

Neo-Taínoness (also referred to as Taíno resurgence or Taíno identity) is the concept of modern peoples from the Greater Antilles (especially Puerto Ricans) identifying themselves with the pre-Columbian Amerindian population of the western Caribbean.

The general scholarly opinion is that Taíno culture became rapidly extinct after the arrival of the Spaniards in the Caribbean in 1492. [1] This was caused by introduced European diseases, labour demands and slavery. Nevertheless, the Taíno peoples continue to have a voice since many Caribbean people nowadays still identify themselves as descendants of their Indian ancestors. The concept of living Taíno is controversial because of the presumed extinction. [2] Those who claim to be Taíno people have been increasingly active in asserting the call for the recognition of their human rights on a local, national and international level throughout the Caribbean and the U.S., and particularly for their treatment as a recognized tribe. These Neo-Taíno movements are now intruding national political scenes.

Taíno cultural continuity

Taíno culture persists in many ways, although a lot of contemporary practices are often not realized to be Taíno. [3] We see Taíno presence today in the form of the maintenance of traditions; communities and tribal declarations or treaties; Taíno media such as websites, online social networks, and Taíno TV; and Taíno art and music. Contemporary rural inhabitants of the Greater Antilles retain Taíno agricultural practices, foodways, medicinal knowledge, fishing practices, technology, architecture, and oral history. Even indigenous petroglyphs are redrawn next to the original ones we find in caves. [4] Taíno vocabulary still persists in many occasions and is indeed used actively by the island inhabitants. Rivers, mountains and towns bear Taíno names and children are named after Taíno persons. Tourism is flourishing using indigenous words to advertise. Familiar words to us are for instance ‘hammock’ and ‘canoe’, originating in pre-Hispanic times. Besides, the word ‘Boricua’ has come to identify any resident or descendent of Puerto Rico, who will use the term to identify themselves. [5] Originally, the Taíno used the word to refer to the island of Puerto Rico. Since recent times a neo-Taíno movement is gaining popularity. [6] With this movement peoples claim to be of native descent in the islands of Puerto Rico, Hispaniola and Eastern Cuba to attempt to maintain some form of cultural connection with their historic identities.

Taíno identity in Puerto Rico

The Taínos became a symbol of Puerto Rican identity in the 19th century, when local governments and intellectuals began to appropriate the Taínos for the conception of a socially and racially balanced Puerto Rican society. [7] More recently the neo-Taíno movement was developed. It rejects its Puerto Rican identity in favour of that of a direct Taíno descendant. Basically we see a systematic overvaluation of the Hispanic element, the romanticization of Taíno Indians, and the underestimation of African-derived cultural elements. Much of its origin lies in the Stateside Puerto Rican population and has migrated to Puerto Rico. In the U.S., minority groups have ample possibilities to raise their voices and to be heard. To settle firm ground for their movement in Puerto Rico, this was possibly the easiest way to go. Through assertions of cultural distinctiveness their role has been most of all directed at enhancing the status of minority group. As a result of the new, more overt forms of racism and elitism that reappeared in the 1980s, Puerto Ricans and other Caribbean Latinos revived or developed new concepts of personal and group identity to deal with an economic, social and political environment that became increasingly hostile or indifferent. This was not only as a result of nationalistic feelings or an urge to rebel against the ‘big brother’ from North America, but also due to a deeply founded pride of their Amerindian descent. [8] Through part-time or full-time work in the U.S., Puerto Ricans came into contact with North-American Indians, which also stimulated their Indian consciousness.

The assumption of a precolumbian indigenous identity by a growing number of Puerto Ricans, most of who were born and raised in the U.S, has often been explained as an escape from marginality. Taíno resurgence reproduces the values of the European-imposed system of power based on racial purity. It is argued that for many their identity is one they have “selected” primarily as an escape from their blackness and their African past. Puerto Ricans would explain their dark skin as due to Taíno ancestry instead.

These groups, identifying with the Taíno, in general have all taken economic, social, and political positions that can be described as conservative, accommodationist, or non-threatening to the prevailing social order, as to be regarded as a peaceful minority group claiming their rights. For members (but also for other interested persons) they have worked to recreate consciousness of Taíno culture, language, religion, and an essentialist Taíno identity. Occasionally they are involved in protests and negotiation affairs. [9] The Neo-Taínos have been active in environmental issues and on issues involving the rights of all Native Americans. The establishment of links with other Native American groups has given them a stronger political position. Most Neo-Taínos do not, however, see their movement as a political movement, but rather as a cultural or spiritual one. In fact, their goals and programs are very much imbued with politics.

Over recent years a number of contemporary Taíno organizations, such as The Jatibonicu Taíno Tribal Nation of Boriken, Puerto Rico (1970) and The United Confederation of Taíno People (1998) have been established. They aim to put forth claims of treatment as a recognized tribe and recognition of their human rights and to foster Taíno culture.

Taíno identity in The Dominican Republic

Most history books state that the last Taínos were they who rebelled with the cacique Enriquillo in a revolt against the Spaniards in 1519. This image of Enriquillo and his people is a very romantic part of Dominican history and elevates the status of Enriquillo to superhero. [10] It can be argued that this is why Dominican people today take an ironic pride in the supposed fact that it is only on their island that no Amerindians survived the Conquest Era. As can be read above, however, the factual evidence is quite contrary to the romantic concept. Nevertheless, Amerindian cultural traits that are still vivid in rural settings are often very much looked down upon by urbanites as being backwards. [11]

There are some individuals and families who are fully aware of their Taíno ancestry, many tied to particular regions like the Cibao. [12] Many salient themes from their shared indigenous past can be said to constitute a distinctive Taíno identity. In recent years the tourism industry has given a boost to the commercial usage of these elements. However, while Taíno heritage is seen in many daily lifeways in the Dominican Republic, its strength as an element of Dominican identity has not been encouraged via governmental channels, like education and cultural heritage programs. Museums and monuments of Taíno heritage have a relatively minimal role in the composition and promotion of Taíno identity. [13] Therefore, the persistence of Taíno-derived cultural forms can be seen as a testament to their underlying strength. Perceptions about the Taíno past, however, are often framed around a Hispanic nationalism that marginalizes or romanticizes the native component of Dominican identity.

It can be said that the tenacity of Taíno cultural expression and biological continuity suggests that a re-examination and reclamation of the Taíno past has finally arrived and that it is spreading in the Dominican Republic. However, the scale on which this process is progressing is by far as large as on the island of Puerto Rico.

DNA bloodlines

Scientific research has aided to establish genetic lineages through time. A recent study of mtDNA from 800 Puerto Rican individuals found 61.1% as having Amerindian maternal mtDNA, indicating a majority of the island inhabitants having a Taíno ancestry. [14][15] Certainly there are no full blood Taíno peoples alive today, but this research points towards a large mestizo population: these peoples can trace their descent to an Amerindian woman. [16] A similar research was conducted in the Dominican Republic. [17] The results showed a percentage of 15-18% of the modern-day Dominican population having a direct Taíno descent through the maternal line. Interestingly, basically all these people live in the (south) eastern part of the country. However, criticism to these studies has also been raised. [18]

Controversy and criticism

This claimed identity is controversial in several aspects: the genetic basis the adherents claim is dubious; by some the movement is seen as a rejection of the African elements of the country and ‘blackness’ in general, implying notions of racism; and, the fact that over 80% of the ethnic groups of Puerto Rico are white (and only 0.4% being Amerindian). Modern critics argue that the Taíno heritage has been canonized through state-sponsored institutions, such as festivals, museums, and textbooks, at the expense of blacks. In the past, officials, alarmed at the black majorities on other Caribbean Islands, tried to “whiten” Puerto Rican society by calling all people of colour Taínos. Others complain that the Taíno revival lost its fervour, evolving from an anti-colonialist movement to a mere fashionable trend over the years.

References

Notes

[1] The Taíno are the pre-Hispanic Amerindian inhabitants of the Greater Antilles, which includes Cuba, Hispaniola (Haiti and the Dominican Republic), Puerto Rico, Jamaica and the Bahamas. [2] Ferbel-Azcarate, 2002. [3] Taliman, 2001. [4] Reniel Rodriguez Ramos, personal communication. [5] "¡Yo soy Boricua!" ("I am a Boricua"). While widely embraced as a term of racial-ethnic identification by Stateside Puerto Ricans spread by independence groups like the Young Lords, it is a more controversial label among the middle and upper classes in Puerto Rico. The term Boricua, from this class-based point of view, has negative connotations as a lower class term and to some refers only to stateside Puerto Ricans. Stateside, it is warmly embraced as a term that evokes the deep Puerto Rican past and identity with the island's indigenous population. [6] see Duany 2002; Haslip-Viera 2001. [7] Frank Moya Pons, a Dominican historian documented that Spanish colonists intermarried with Taíno women, and, over time, these mestizo descendants intermarried with Africans, creating a tri-racial Creole culture. 1514 census records reveal that 40% of Spanish men in the Dominican Republic had Taíno wives (see also Ferbel, 2002; Ferrer 1999). [8] Puerto Rico is a self-governing unincorporated territory of the United States. [9] In June 2005 for instance a group of Taíno Indians from Puerto Rico has occupied an archaeological open-air museum. They went on hunger-strike as a reaction to the disrespectful way the national government dealt with the ancient sacred places of the original population by commercializing these for tourism purposes. [10] see Galván, 1989; Utrera 1973. [11] Ferbel-Azcarate, 2002. [12] Cibao, usually referred as "El Cibao", is a region of the Dominican Republic located at the northern part of the country. The Taíno word Cibao, meaning "place where rocks abound", was originally applied to the central mountain range, and used during the Spanish conquest to refer to the rich and fertile valley between the Central and Septentrional mountain ranges. [13] Ferbel-Azcarate, 1995. [14] Martínez-Cruzado, 2002. [15] i.e. Mitochondrial DNA (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA). [16] see note 7. [17] This study was conducted by Dr. Mercedes de la Cruz. [18] e.g. Haslip-Viera, 2006.

References

• Acosta-Belen, Edna et al. (2000)"Adiós, Borinquen querida": The Puerto Rican Diaspora, Its History, and Contributions.Albany. NY: Center for Latino, Latin American, and Caribbean Studies, SUNY-Albany.
• Camacho Souza, Blasé (1982)Boricua Hawaiiana: Puerto Ricans of Hawaii --- Reflections of the Past and Mirrors of the Future. Honolulu: Puerto Rican Heritage Society of Hawaii.
• DeRLAS. Some important research contributions of Genetics to the study of Population History and Anthropology in Puerto Rico. Newark, Delaware: Delaware Review of Latin American Studies. August 15, 2000.
• Duany, Jorge (2002) The Puerto Rican Nation on the Move: Identities on the Island & in the United States. Chapel Hill, NC.: University of North Carolina Press.
• Ferbel-Azcarate, Pedro (1995) When a canoe means more than a water trough: Taíno Indian heritage in the post-Quincentennial Dominican Republic. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
• Ferbel-Azcarate, Pedro (2002) Not Everyone Who Speaks Spanish is from Spain: Taino Survival in the 21st Century Dominican Republic. KACIKE: The Journal of Caribbean Amerindian History and Anthropology, Special Issue, December 2002.
• Ferbel-Azcarate, Pedro & Guitar, Lynne (2002) New Directions in the Study of Taíno Heritage: Conference and Exhibition. KACIKE: The Journal of Caribbean Amerindian History and Anthropology, Special Issue, December 2002.
• Ferrer, Melba. UPR study finds high Taino DNA rate: Tests contradict theory of extinction of P.R. natives. San Juan Star, 18 April 1999.
• Forte, Maximilian (2002). "We are not extinct": The revival of Carib and Taino identities, the internet, and the transformation of offline indigenes into online 'N-digenes'. Sincronía, Spring.
• Forte, Maximilian (2005) Extinction: The Historical Trope of Anti-Indigeneity in the Caribbean. Issues in Caribbean Amerindian Studies, Vol. VI, No. 4, August 2004-August 2005.
• Forte, Maximilian (ed.) (2006) Indigenous Resurgence in the Contemporary Caribbean: Amerindian Survival and Revival. New York: Peter Lang Publishing.
• Galván, M. de J. (1882[1989]) Enriquillo. Santo Domingo: Ediciones de Taller.
• Guitar, Lynne (2000) Criollos: The Birth of a Dynamic New Indo-Afro-European People and Culture on Hispaniola KACIKE: The Journal of Caribbean Amerindian History and Anthropology, 1(1): 1-17.
• Haslip-Viera, Gabriel (ed.) (2001) Taino Revival: Critical Perspectives on Puerto Rican Identity and Cultural Politics. Hunter College, City University of New York.
• Haslip-Viera, Gabriel (2006). The Politics of Taíno Revivalism: The Insignificance of Amerindian mtDNA in the Population History of Puerto Ricans. A Comment on Recent Research. Centro Journal, spring 2006, 18(1), pp. 260-275.
• Haslip-Viera, Gabriel, Angelo Falcón and Félix Matos Rodríguez (eds.) (2004) Boricuas in Gotham: Puerto Ricans in the Making of Modern New York City.Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers.
• Kearns, Richard. The Return of the Taïnos/ Our Own “Lost Tribe”. Issues in Caribbean Amerindian Studies (Occasional Papers of the Caribbean Amerindian Centrelink), Vol. II, No. 1, Oct 1999 - Oct 2000.
• Lalueza-Fox, C. et al. (2001). MtDNA from extinct Tainos and the peopling of the Caribbean. Annals of Human Genetics 65, 137-151.
• Luna Calderón, Fernando (2002). ADN Mitocondrial Taino en la República Dominicana. KACIKE: The Journal of Caribbean Amerindian History and Anthropology, Special Issue, December 2002.
• Martínez-Cruzado, Juan (2002) The Use of Mitochondrial DNA to Discover Pre-Columbian Migrations to the Caribbean: Results for Puerto Rico and Expectations for the Dominican Republic. KACIKE: The Journal of Caribbean Amerindian History and Anthropology, Special Issue, December 2002.
• Negrón-Muntaner, Frances (2004) Boricua Pop: Puerto Ricans and the Latinization of American Culture.New York: New York University Press.
• Rouse, Irving (1992) The Tainos: Rise and Decline of the people who greeted Columbus. Yale University Press.
• Santiago, Robert (1995) Boricuas: Influential Puerto Rican Writings.New York: One World.
• Sénchez González, Lisa (2001)Boricua Literature: A Literary History of the Puerto Rican Diaspora.New York: New York University Press.
• Taliman, Valerie. Taino Nation alive and strong. Indian Country Today, 24 January 2001.
• Utrera, Fray C. De (1973) Polémica de Enriquillo. Santo Domingo: Editora del Caribe.
• Valdivia, Javier. Estudio demuestra que parte de dominicanos conserva genes taínos. La República, 10 August 2008.
• Vega, B. (1981) La herencia indígena en la cultura Dominicana de hoy. In Ensayos Sobre Cultura Dominicana, pp. 9-53. Santo Domingo: Museo del Hombre Dominicano.
• Veran, Cristina. Born Puerto Rican, born (again) Taino? A resurgence of indigenous identity among Puerto Ricans has sparked debates over the island's tri-racial history. Colorlines Magazine, 22 Sept. 2003.
• Wilson, Samuel M. (1997) The Legacy of the Indigenous Peoples of the Caribbean. In: The Indigenous Peoples of the Caribbean. S. M. Wilson, (ed.), pp. 206-213. Gainesville: The University Press of Florida.

External links

• example.com

• TAINOS: Alive and well in Puerto Rico and the United States?
• The Healing Center Online. The Taino Indians: Native Americans of the Caribbean
• Taíno Naboría Society Social Network.
• A comprehensive overview of sites related to the Taínos of Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, and the USA, provided by Caribbean Amerindian Centrelink (CAC).
• The official site of the Jatibonicu Taino Tribal Nation of Boriken.
• The voice of the Taíno people online, the Caribbean Organization of Indigenous Peoples uses this site for news and updates from the indigenous peoples of the Caribbean region. It has articles, short movies, blogs, and a lot of links.
• Website of the “Inter-Tribal Authority” The United Confederation of Taíno People.
• A Puerto Rican Diaspora Online Cultural Resource: http://www.boricuation.com/.
• A collection of Taíno Tribal and Education sites.
• The Lost Taíno Tribe Social Network.
• Island Thresholds. Peabody Essex Museum’s interactive feature, showcases the work of Caribbean artists and their exploration of culture and identity.
• Taino Diccionary. A dictionary of words of the indigenous peoples of the Caribbean from the encyclopedia "Clásicos de Puerto Rico”, second edition, publisher: Ediciones Latinoamericanas. S.A., 1972 compiled by Puerto Rican historian Dr. Cayetano Coll y Toste of the "Real Academia de la Historia". Provided by the Jatibonicu Taíno Tribal Nation of Boriken (Puerto Rico).