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[edit]Your continued donations keep Wikipedia running! History of Korea From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The history of Korea stretches from Lower Paleolithic times to the present.[1] The earliest known Korean pottery dates to around 8000 BC, and the Neolithic period began before 6000 BC, followed by the Bronze Age around 2500 BC. According to the legend, the first dynasty of Gojoseon(Old Joseon) was founded in 2333 BC, and it eventually stretched from the peninsula to much of Manchuria.[2] By 3rd Century BC, it was in decline and eventually broke apart, producing a multitude of successor states.
In the early Common Era, the Three Kingdoms (Goguryeo, Silla, and Baekje) conquered other successor states of Gojoseon and came to dominate the peninsula and much of Manchuria. It was during this period that the Koreans played an important role as a transmitter of cultural advances, aiding the formation of early Japanese culture and politics. Census records from early Japan show that most Japanese aristocratic clans traced their lineage to the Korean peninsula. The current Japanese Emperor stated that "it is recorded in the Chronicles of Japan that the mother of Emperor Kammu was of the line of King Muryong of Baekje," and "I believe it was fortunate to see such culture and skills transmitted from Korea to Japan." [4]</ref>
The Korean kingdoms competed with each other both economically and militarily. While Goguryeo and Baekje were more powerful for much of the era, defeating Chinese invasions several times, by the 7th century, Silla's power gradually extended across Korea and it eventually established the first unified state to cover most of Korean peninsula by 676.
This period is often called Unified Silla. Soon after the fall of Goguryeo however, former Goguryeo general Dae Joyeong led a group of Koreans to the eastern Manchuria and founded Balhae (698 AD - 926 AD) as the successor to Goguryeo. After Balhae was defeated in 926, much of its people led by the Crown Prince was absorbed into Goryeo.
Unified Silla itself fell apart in the late 9th century, giving way to the tumultuous Later Three Kingdoms period (892-936), which ended with the establishment of the Goryeo Dynasty. During the Goryeo period, laws were codified, a civil service system was introduced, and Buddhism flourished. In 1238, the Mongolian Empire invaded and after nearly thirty years of war, the two sides signed a peace treaty.
In 1392, the general Yi Seong-gye established the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910) after a coup. King Sejong the Great (1418-1450) promulgated Hangul, the Korean alphabet, as an alternative to Chinese characters which were previously the only system of writing. This period saw various other cultural and technological advances. Between 1592-1598, Japan invaded Korea, but was eventually repelled with the efforts by the Navy led by Admiral Yi Sun-sin, resistance armies, and Chinese aid. In the 1620s and 1630s, Joseon suffered invasions by the Manchu Qing Dynasty.
Beginning in the 1870s, Japan began to force Korea out of China's sphere of influence into its own. In 1895, Empress Myeongseong of Korea was assassinated by Japanese agents.[3] In 1905, Japan forced Korea to sign the Eulsa Treaty making Korea a protectorate, and in 1910 annexed Korea, although neither is considered to be legally valid.[4] Korean resistance to the Japanese occupation was manifested in the massive nonviolent March 1st Movement of 1919. Thereafter the Korean independence movement, coordinated by the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea in exile, was largely active in neighboring Manchuria, China and Siberia.
With the defeat of Japan in 1945, the United Nations developed plans for a trusteeship administration by the Soviet Union and the United States, but the plan was soon abandoned. In 1948, new governments were established, the democratic South Korea and Communist North Korea divided at the 38th parallel. The unresolved tensions of the division surfaced in the Korean war of 1950, when North Korea invaded South Korea. Contents [hide]
* 1 Prehistory
o 1.1 Jeulmun Pottery Period
o 1.2 Mumun Pottery Period
* 2 Gojoseon
o 2.1 Gija Joseon
o 2.2 Bronze Culture
o 2.3 Iron Culture
o 2.4 Decline and fall
* 3 Three Kingdoms Period
o 3.1 Proto-Three Kingdoms
o 3.2 Goguryeo
o 3.3 Baekje
o 3.4 Silla
* 4 North and South States
o 4.1 Unified Silla
o 4.2 Balhae
o 4.3 Later Three Kingdoms
* 5 Goryeo
* 6 Joseon
o 6.1 Power Struggle
o 6.2 Economy
o 6.3 Social hierarchy
o 6.4 Later Era of Joseon Dynasty
o 6.5 19th century
* 7 Japanese Occupation
* 8 The division of Korea
* 9 Notes
* 10 References
* 11 See also
* 12 External links
History of Korea
Gojoseon, Jin Proto-Three Kingdoms:
Buyeo, Okjeo, Dongye Samhan (Ma, Byeon, Jin)
Three Kingdoms:
Goguryeo Sui invasions Baekje Silla, Gaya
North-South States:
Unified Silla, Balhae Later Three Kingdoms
Goryeo
Khitan wars Mongol invasions
Joseon
Japanese invasions Manchu invasions
Korean Empire Japanese occupation
Provisional Gov't
Division of Korea
Korean War
North, South Korea
Timeline List of Monarchs Korea Portal A replica of the Bangudae Petroglyphs at the Gyeongju National Museum. A replica of the Bangudae Petroglyphs at the Gyeongju National Museum.
Archaeological evidence shows that hominins first inhabited the Korean Peninsula 700,000 years ago, though some North Koreans claim it may have been inhabited for 1,000,000 years.[5] Tool-making artifacts from the Palaeolithic period (700,000 BC to 40,000 BC) have been found in present-day North Hamgyong, South P'yongan, Gyeonggi, and north and south Chungcheong Provinces. The people were cave dwellers and built homes, using fire for cooking food and warmth. They hunted, gathered and fished with stone tools.
[edit] Jeulmun Pottery Period
Main article: Jeulmun Pottery Period
The earliest known Korean pottery dates back to around 8000 BC or before, and evidence of Mesolithic Pit-Comb Ware culture or Yungimun Pottery (ko:융기문토기) is found throughout the peninsula. An example of a Yungimun-era site is the Gosan-ni in Jeju-do. Jeulmun or Comb-pattern Pottery (즐문토기) is found after 7000 BC, and pottery with comb-patterns over the whole vessel is found concentrated at sites in West-central Korea between 3500-2000 BC, a time when a number of settlements such as Amsa-dong existed. Jeulmun pottery is similar to that of the Russian Maritime Province, Mongolia, and the Amur and Sungari River basins of Manchuria.[6]
[edit] Mumun Pottery Period
Main article: Mumun Pottery Period
Archaeological evidence demonstrates that agricultural societies and the earliest forms of social-political complexity emerged in the Mumun Pottery Period (c. 1500-300 BC). People in southern Korea adopted intensive dry-field and paddy-field agriculture with a multitude of crops in the Early Mumun Period (1500-850 BC). The first societies led by big-men or chiefs emerged in the Middle Mumun (850-550 BC), and the first ostentatious elite burials can be traced to the Late Mumun (c. 550-300 BC). Bronze production began in the Middle Mumun and became increasingly important in Mumun ceremonial and political society after 700 BC The Mumun is the first time that villages rose, became large, and then fell: some important examples include Songgung-ni, Daepyeong, and Igeum-dong. The increasing presense of long-distance trade, an increase in local conflicts, and the introduction of bronze and iron metallurgy are trends denoting the end of the Mumun around 300 BC
[edit] Gojoseon
Main articles: Gojoseon, Dangun
According to legend, Korea's first kingdom, Gojoseon (then called Joseon), was founded by Dangun in 2333 BC, in southern Manchuria and northern Korean peninsula.[7] Recent studies indicate that people of Gojoseon belonged to the Tungusic family and were linguistically affiliated with the Altaic.[8] By 2000 BC, a new pottery culture is evidenced, with painted designs, in Manchuria and northern Korea.
[edit] Gija Joseon
Although not widely accepted in Korea, some later Chinese records indicate Gija, an uncle of the last King of Shang dynasty, migrated to Gojoseon around the 12th century BC. The claim that Gija went to Gojoseon is generally rejected by Korean scholars because of lack of contemporary evidence.[9] It is generally accepted that during the Han dynasty of China, when China was at war with Gojoseon, Chinese historians embellished Gija as the progenitor of Gojoseon. The first historical documents to describe Gija, the Bamboo Annals (竹書紀年) and Confucian Analects (論語), make no mention of Gija's supposed migration to Gojoseon.[10] Furthermore, the artifact most representative of Gojoseon, the bronze violin-shaped dagger, differs significantly in both form and composition from its Chinese counterpart, indicating a cultural distinction. Some scholars consider Gija Joseon a separate entity coexisting with Gojoseon, located at Liaoning. An archaeological site thought by many to be the tomb of Gija has been found in Shandong province in China.[11] Liaoning-style bronze knives from Korea held at the War Memorial (Seoul). Liaoning-style bronze knives from Korea held at the War Memorial (Seoul).
[edit] Bronze Culture
The Bronze Age is often held to have begun around 1500 – 1000 BC in Korea, though recent archaeological evidence suggests it might have started as far back as 2500 BC..[12] Bronze daggers, mirrors, and weaponry have been found, as well as evidence of walled-town polities..[13] Rice, red beans, soybeans and millet were cultivated, and rectangular pit-houses and increasingly larger dolmen burial sites are found throughout the peninsula. [5] Contemporaneous records suggest that Gojoseon transitioned from a feudal federation of walled cities into a centralised kingdom at least before the 4th century BC.[14]
[edit] Iron Culture
It is believed that by the third century BC, iron culture was developing and the warring states of China pushed refugees eastward and south. Recently however, an iron mirror has been found in Songseok-ri Kangdong-gun Pyongyang in North Korea,[15] that may have originateed from 1200 BCE.
Around this time, a state called Jin arose in the southern part of the Korean peninsula. Very little is known about Jin, but it established relations with Han China and exported artifacts to the Yayoi of Japan.[16] Although very little information is available, a king of Gija Joseon may have fled to Jin after a coup by Wiman. Jin later evolved into the Samhan confederacies.
[edit] Decline and fall
The course of the decline and fall of Gojoseon is in dispute, depending on how historians view Gija Joseon. The theory suggested by Joseon Sangosa is that Gojoseon disintegrated by about 300 BCE as it gradually lost the control of its former fiefs. Many smaller states sprang from the former territory of Gojoseon such as Buyeo, Okjeo, Dongye, Guda-guk, Galsa-guk, Gaema-guk, and Hangin-guk. Goguryeo and Baekje descended from Buyeo.
[edit] Three Kingdoms Period
Main article: Three Kingdoms of Korea
The Three Kingdoms refer to Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla, although the term is sometimes disputed as Buyeo and the Gaya confederacy existed well into 5th and 6th centuries respectively.
[edit] Proto-Three Kingdoms
Main article: Proto-Three Kingdoms of Korea
The early part of the Three Kingdoms Period, before the states grew into dominant centralized kingdoms, is sometimes called the Proto-Three Kingdoms Period (2nd century BC - 3rd century).
After the end of Gojoseon, Jin in the southern part of the peninsula developed into three loose confederacies: Mahan, Jinhan, and Byeonhan (collectively, the Samhan).
In the north, Goguryeo was founded around the modern border between China and Korea in the 2nd century BC, claiming to be the successor to a branch of Buyeo. Among the other various small states in former Gojoseon territory were Okjeo, Dongye, and the remnants of Buyeo, all of which were later conquered by Goguryeo. The last Chinese commandery, at Lelang, was destroyed by Goguryeo in 313.
Mahan was later absorbed into Baekje by 4th Century, Jinhan was absorbed into Silla, and Byeonhan was succeeded by Gaya, which was in turn fully annexed by Silla by 562.
[edit] Goguryeo
Main article: Goguryeo
An example of a Goguryeo tomb mural. An example of a Goguryeo tomb mural.
Goguryeo was founded the earliest and was the largest of the three. It was founded in 37 BC by Jumong (posthumous name Dongmyeongseong). Goguryeo was the first Korean kingdom to adopt Buddhism as the state religion in 372.
Goguryeo reached its zenith in the fifth century, when King Gwanggaeto and his son, King Jangsu expanded into almost all of Manchuria and part of inner Mongolia, and took the Seoul region from Baekje, making Goguryeo one of the great powers in East Asia. Gwanggaeto and Jangsu subdued Baekje and Silla during their times, bringing about a loose unification of Korea. Jangsu's grandson, Munjamyeong absorbed Buyeo by 494. The Goguryeo kings ruled not only Koreans but also Chinese and other Tungusic tribes in Manchuria and North Korea. Goguryeo defeated a massive Chinese invasion in the Goguryeo-Sui War of 598-614, contributing to Sui's fall, and continued to repel the Tang dynasty, who attacked Goguryeo as revenge.[17]
However, numerous wars exhausted Goguryeo and it fell into a weak state. After internal power struggles, it was conquered by the allied Silla-Tang forces in 668.
[edit] Baekje
Main article: Baekje
One of the two gold diadem ornaments worn by the Baekje King Muryeong of Baekje. One of the two gold diadem ornaments worn by the Baekje King Muryeong of Baekje.
Baekje's foundation by King Onjo in 18 BCE [6], as stated in the Samguk Sagi followed those of its neighbors and rivals, Goguryeo and Silla.
The Sanguo Zhi mentions Baekje as a member of the Mahan confederacy in the Han River basin (near present-day Seoul). It expanded into the southwest (Chungcheong and Jeolla provinces) of the peninsula and became a significant political and military power. In the process, Baekje came into fierce confrontation with Goguryeo and the Chinese commanderies in the vicinity of its territorial ambitions.
At its peak in the 4th century, it had absorbed all of the Mahan states and subjugated most of the western Korean peninsula (including the moder provinces of Kyonggi, Chunchong, and Cholla, as well as part of Hwanghae and Kangwon) to a centralized government. Baekje acquired Chinese culture and technology through contacts with the Southern Dynasties during the expansion of its territory.
Baekje played a fundamental role in transmitting cultural developments, such as Chinese characters, Buddhism, iron-making, advanced pottery, and ceremonial burial into ancient Japan.[18] Other aspects of culture were also transmitted when the Baekje court retreated to Japan after Baekje was conquered. Baekje was defeated by a coalition of Silla and Tang Dynasty forces in 660.
[edit] Silla
Main article: Silla
Image:Sillagoldcrown.gif Silla crown at Gyeongju National Museum.
According to legend, the kingdom Silla began with the unification of six chiefdoms of the Jinhan confederacy by Bak Hyeokgeose in 57 BCE, in the southeastern area of Korea. Its territory included the present-day port city of Busan, and Silla later emerged as a sea power responsible for destroying Japanese pirates, especially during the Unified Silla period.
Silla artifacts, including unique gold metalwork, show influence from the northern nomadic steppes, with less Chinese influence than are shown by Goguryeo and Baekje. Silla expanded rapidly by occupying the Han River basin and uniting the city states.
By the 2nd century, Silla existed as a large state, occupying and influencing nearby city states. Silla began to gain power when it annexed in 562 the Gaya confederacy, between Baekje and Silla. Silla often faced pressure from Baekje and Japan, and at various times allied and warred with Baekje and Goguryeo.
In 660, King Muyeol of Silla ordered his armies to attack Baekje. General Kim Yu-shin, aided by Tang forces, conquered Baekje. In 661, Silla and Tang moved on Goguryeo but were repelled. King Munmu, son of Muyeol and nephew of General Kim, ordered his uncle to launch another campaign in 667 and Goguryeo fell in the following year.
[edit] North and South States
[edit] Unified Silla
Main article: Unified Silla Bulguksa Temple is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Bulguksa Temple is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Unified Silla lasted for 267 years until, under King Gyeongsun, it was replaced by Goryeo in 935..[19] Thus post-668 Silla kingdom is often referred to as Unified Silla, though the term North-South States, in reference to Balhae, is used.
After the unification wars, the Tang Dynasty established territories in the former Goguryeo. They began to administer Baekje and began to establish communities there. The Tang Dynasty's intention of conquering Silla as well was made clear and Silla attacked the Chinese in Baekje and northern Korea in 671..[17] China then invaded Silla in 674 but with the leadership of General Kim Yu-shin, Silla defeated the Chinese army in the north.
Silla drove the Tang forces out of the peninsula by 676 to achieve unification of most of the Three Kingdoms. This is a replica of the famous 80 meter tall pagoda at Hwangnyongsa Temple which was destroyed by the Mongols. This is a replica of the famous 80 meter tall pagoda at Hwangnyongsa Temple which was destroyed by the Mongols.
Unified Silla was a time when Korean arts flourished dramatically and Buddhism became a large part of Silla culture. Buddhist monasteries such as the Bulguksa are examples of advanced Korean architecture and Buddhist influence. State-sponsored art and architecture from this period include Hwangnyongsa Temple, Bunhwangsa Temple, and Seokguram Grotto, a World Heritage Site.
Silla began to experience political troubles in 780 when kings began to be assassinated by resistance leaders. The resistance leaders nearly overthrew Silla several times, but failed. This however, severely weakened Silla and soon thereafter, descendents of the former Baekje established Later Baekje. In the north, leaders revived Goguryeo. Korea dissolved into the Later Three Kingdoms..[17]
[edit] Balhae
Main articles: Balhae Balhae stele at the National Museum of Korea. Balhae stele at the National Museum of Korea.
Balhae was founded in the northern part of former lands of Goguryeo by Dae Joyeong, a former Goguryeo general. Balhae controlled the northernmost areas of the Korean Peninsula, much of Manchuria (though it didn't occupy Liaodong peninsula for much of history), and expanded into present-day Russian Maritime Province. Balhae styled itself as Goguryeo's successor state. It also adapted from the Tang Empire, for example in the layout of its capitals.
In a time of relative peace and stability in the region, Balhae culture flourished, especially during the long reign of the third Emperor, Dae Heummu (r. 737-793). Like Silla culture, the culture of Balhae was strongly influenced by Buddhism. However, Balhae was severely weakened by the tenth century, and the Khitan Liao Dynasty conquered Balhae in 926.
No historical records from Balhae have survived, and the Liao left no histories of Balhae. Goryeo (see below) absorbed some Balhae territory and received Balhae refugees, including the crown prince and the royal family, but compiled no known histories of Balhae either. The Samguk Sagi ("History of the Three Kingdoms"), for instance, includes passages on Balhae, but does not include a dynastic history of Balhae. The eighteenth century Joseon dynasty historian Yu Deukgong advocated the proper study of Balhae as part of Korean history, and coined the term "North and South States Period" to refer to this era.
[edit] Later Three Kingdoms
Main article: Later Three Kingdoms
The Later Three Kingdoms (892 - 936) consisted of Silla, Hubaekje ("Later Baekje"), and Taebong (also known as Hugoguryeo, "Later Goguryeo"). The latter two, established as Unified Silla declined in power, were viewed as heirs to the earlier Three Kingdoms of Korea.
Taebong (Later Goguryeo) was originally led by Gung Ye, a Buddhist monk who founded Later Goguryeo. The unpopular Gung Ye was deposed by Wang Geon (877-943) in 918, when Gung Ye killed his wife and son.[20] Wang Geon was popular with his people, and he decided to unite the entire peninsula under one government. He attacked Later Baekje in 934 and received the surrender of Silla in the following year. In 936, Goryeo conquered Later Baekje.
[edit] Goryeo
Main article: Goryeo
The famous Gyeongcheonsa Pagoda from the Goryeo Dynasty. The famous Gyeongcheonsa Pagoda from the Goryeo Dynasty.
Goryeo was founded in 918 and by 936, replaced Silla as the ruling dynasty of Korea. ("Goryeo" is a short form of "Goguryeo" and the source of the English name "Korea.") The dynasty lasted until 1392. During this period laws were codified, and a civil service system was introduced. Buddhism flourished, and spread throughout the peninsula. The development of celadon industry flourished in 12th and 13th century. The publication of Tripitaka Koreana, and world's first metal printing technology in 13th century, attests to Goryeo's cultural achievements.
In 1231 the Mongols began its campaigns against Korea and after 25 years of struggle, the royal family relented by signing a treaty with the Mongols. For the following 80 years Goryeo survived, but under the interference of the Mongols. Kingfisher glazed Goryeo celadon incense burner, a national treasure of South Korea. Kingfisher glazed Goryeo celadon incense burner, a national treasure of South Korea.
In the 1340s, the Mongol Empire declined rapidly due to internal struggles. King Gongmin was free at last to reform a Goryeo government. Gongmin had various problems that needed to be dealt with, which included the removal of pro-Mongol aristocrats and military officials, the question of land holding, and quelling the growing animosity between the Buddhists and Confucian scholars.
Another problem was that "Japanese" pirates were now organizing deep raids into the country. General Lee Seonggye distinguished himself by repelling the pirates in a series of successful engagements. The Goryeo dynasty would last until 1392, when Lee Seonggye, who had heavy support among aristocracy, would easily take power in a coup.
[edit] Joseon
Main article: Joseon Dynasty
In 1392 a Korean general, Lee Seonggye, was sent to China to campaign against the Ming Dynasty, but instead he returned to overthrow the Goryeo king and establish a new dynasty. He named it the Joseon Dynasty in honor of the previous Joseon before (Gojoseon is the first Joseon. "Go" was added to distinguish between the two). King Taejo moved the capital to Hanseong (formerly Hanyang; modern-day Seoul) and built the Gyeongbokgung palace. In 1394 he adopted Confucianism as the country's official religion, resulting in much loss of power and wealth by the Buddhists. Joseon experienced advances in science and culture; most notably, the Hangul alphabet was invented by King Sejong in 1443. The Joseon Dynasty is believed to have been the longest-lived actively ruling dynasty in East Asia during the last millennium.
[edit] Power Struggle
Although King Taejo managed to bring the government under his control and crown himself, political rivalry arose among his numerous sons. The competition for the throne became violent and princes were murdered.
King Taejo immediately executed all government officials still loyal to Goryeo. After this, he quickly began the process of selecting officials to run his government departments and begin stabilizing the government. King Taejo consolidated his power over Joseon by eliminating officials connected to the Goryeo line. Today, there are very few Koreans of direct Goryeo royal descent.
After King Jeongjong's rule, King Taejong, the third king of Joseon, created laws aimed at preventing revolts. He banned the use of private armies, reduced the power of government officials, and increased the size of the professional armies stationed in the capital and in garrisons all over the country.
[edit] Economy A fishing junk in 1871. This is the oldest surviving photograph known to show Koreans, taken by Felice Beato during the U.S. military campaign. A fishing junk in 1871. This is the oldest surviving photograph known to show Koreans, taken by Felice Beato during the U.S. military campaign.
Joseon maintained a stable economy during peaceful times. After the Joseon court was established and completed, the economy began to prosper as well. Early during the Joseon Dynasty, the economy was stable, especially during King Sejong's rule. However, the economy suffered after the Japanese invasions 1592-1598 and internal court corruption, bribery, and heavy tax, strained the Korean economy.
[edit] Social hierarchy
Joseon formed a very strict class system that affected the economy. The king was at the top of the system, while the yangbans and government officials and generals were below him. Yangbans were influential scholars during the Joseon Dynasty. The middle class consisted of a few merchants and craftsmen. The bulk of the economy was in the lowest class of the farmers and slaves. At one point, slaves comprised 30% of the population.
[edit] Later Era of Joseon Dynasty
Joseon dealt with a pair of Japanese invasions from 1592 to 1598 (see Imjin War). This conflict brought prominence to Admiral Yi Sun-sin, and the use of turtle ships and hwachas by the Korean military. Subsequently, there were invasions from Manchuria in 1627 (see the First Manchu invasion of Korea) and again in 1636 (see the Second Manchu invasion of Korea), after which the Joseon dynasty recognized the legitimacy of the Qing Empire. There was trade with the Japanese at Busan, and emissaries were sent to Edo in Japan. Europeans were not permitted to trade at Korean ports until the 1880s.
[edit] 19th century The Gyeongbokgung Palace The Gyeongbokgung Palace
During the 19th century, Korea tried to control foreign influence by closing the borders to all nations but China. In 1853 the USS South America, an American gunboat, visited Busan for 10 days and had amiable contact with local Korean officials. Several Americans who were shipwrecked on Korea in 1855 and 1865 were also treated well and sent to China for repatriation. The Joseon court which ruled Korea, was well aware of the foreign invasions and treaties involving Qing China, as well as the Opium Wars, and followed a cautious policy of slow exchange with the west. In 1866 the General Sherman Incident put Korea and the United States on a collision course.
In 1871, the United States confronted Korea militarily, and retreated, in what the Koreans call the Sinmiyangyo. By 1876, a rapidly modernizing Japan forced Korea to open its ports and successfully challenged the Qing Empire in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895). In 1895, the Japanese murdered Empress Myeongseong,[21] who had sought Russian help, and the Russians were forced to retreat from Korea.
In 1897, Joseon was renamed Daehan Jeguk (Korean Empire), and King Gojong became Emperor Gojong. A period of Russian influence followed, until Japan defeated Russia in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). Korea effectively became a protectorate of Japan on 25 July 1907, the 1905 Protectorate Treaty having been promulgated without Emperor Gojong's required seal.
[edit] Japanese Occupation
Main article: Korea under Japanese rule
In 1910 Japan effectively annexed Korea by the Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty. While the legality of the treaty is still asserted by Japan, it is generally not accepted in Korea because it was not signed by the Emperor of Korea as required and violated international convention on external pressures regarding treaties. Korea was controlled by Japan under a so-called Governor-General of Korea until Japan's unconditional surrender to the Allied Forces, on 15 August 1945, with de jure sovereignty deemed to have passed from Joseon Dynasty to the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea.
European-styled transport and communication networks were established across the nation. This facilitated Japanese exploitation, but modernization had little if any effect on the Korean people, but was mainly being used to serve Japanese trade needs, and their tight centralized controls. The Japanese removed the Joseon hierarchy, destroyed the Korean Palace, and revamped Korea's taxation system to evict tenant farmers, export Korean rice crops to Japan which provoked Korean famines; and brought in a punitive series of measures which included murdering those who refused to pay taxes in the provinces; forced slavery in roadworks, mines, and first sweat shop factories in Korea. Then Japan further promoted slavery of Koreans in Japan and its occupied territories by transporting forced slaves to these areas.
After the Korean Emperor Gojong died in January 1919, with a rumor of poisoning, independence rallies against Japanese invaders took place nationwide on 1 March 1919 (the March 1st (Samil) Movement). This movement was suppressed by force and about 7,000 were killed by Japanese soldiers and police.[22] An estimated 2 million people took part in peaceful, pro-liberation rallies. (The Japanese record claims less than half million.) Many Korean Christians, including an entire village of Jeamri, were crucified or burnt alive in churches as they fought for Korean independence. This movement was partly inspired by United States president Woodrow Wilson's speech of 1919, declaring support for right of self determination and an end to colonial rule for Europeans. No comment was made by Wilson on Korean independence, perhaps as a pro-Japan faction in the USA sought trade inroads into China through the Korean peninsula.
The Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea was established in Shanghai, China, in an aftermath of March 1st Movement, which coordinated the Liberation effort and resistance against Japanese control. Some of the achievements of the Provisional Government include the Battle of Chingshanli of 1920 and the ambush of Japanese Military Leadership in China in 1932. The Provisional Government is considered to be the de jure government of the Korean people between the period 1919 to 1948, and its legitimacy is enshrined in the preamble to the constitution of the South Korea.
Continued anti-Japanese uprisings, such as the nationwide uprising of students in November 1929, led to the strengthening of military rule in 1931. After the outbreaks of the Sino-Japanese War in 1937 and World War II Japan attempted to exterminate Korea as a nation. Worship at Japanese Shinto shrines was made compulsory. The school curriculum was radically modified to eliminate teaching in the Korean language and history within Korea. The continuance of Korean culture itself began to be illegal. Korean culture and economy suffered heavy losses. The Korean language was banned and Koreans were forced to adopt Japanese names.[23] Numerous Korean cultural artifacts were destroyed or taken to Japan.[24] To this day, valuable Korean artifacts can often be found in Japanese museums or among private collectors. Newspapers were prohibited from publishing in Korean and the study of Korean history was banned at university with Korean textbooks burnt, destroyed, or made illegal[citation needed].
Some Koreans left the Korean peninsula to Manchuria and Primorsky Krai. Koreans in Manchuria formed resistance groups known as Dongnipgun (Independence Army) which would travel in and out of the Korean-Chinese boundary, fighting guerrilla warfare with the Japanese forces. These guerilla armies would come together in 1940s as Korean Liberation Army and the Liberation Army took part in allied action in China and parts of South East Asia. Tens of thousands of Koreans also joined the Peoples Liberation Army and the National Revolutionary Army.
During World War II, Koreans were forced to support the Japanese war effort. Tens of thousands of men[25] were conscripted into Japan's military. Approximately 200,000 girls and women,[26] mostly from Korea and China, were conscripted as sex slaves, euphemistically called "comfort women".[27]
The Korean language was banned in official documents and Koreans were forced to adopt Japanese names.[28] Numerous Korean cultural artifacts were numbered and managed (this numbering system has been left in South Korea), destroyed[29] or taken to Japan.[30] To this day, valuable Korean artifacts can often be found in Japanese museums or among private collectors..[31][32] According to the investigation of the South Korea government, There are 75,311 cultural assets that were taken from Korea. Japan has 34,369, The United States has 17,803..[33] Today, Korea frequently demands the return of these artifacts to which Japan does not comply.
Anti-Japanese sentiment is still fairly strong in Korea, as a result of Japanese war crimes and continuing Korean-Japanese disputes. Animosity over the loss of cultural treasures during the occupation has even led to present-day South Korean people stealing back Korean historical materials from Japan.[34]
On December 9, 1941 the provisional government declared war against Japan and Germany[citation needed], and Korean Liberation Army fought alongside the Allied Forces in China and South Asia[citation needed]. The Liberation Army planned to enter Korea and play a part in the defeat of Japanese in Korea, alongside the American Office of Strategic Services, though the Japanese surrender terminated the departure of the leading units due only days away. On August 9, 1945, Seven days after the sundering of the friendship Pact, Soviet tanks entered northern Korea from Siberia, meeting little to no resistance. Japan surrendered to the Allied Forces on 15 August 1945. US forces under General Hodge would not arrive to the southern part of Korea until September 8th. Later the year, Colonel Dean Rusk of Occupying Allied force in Tokyo proposed splitting Korea at the 38th parallel at an emergency US meeting to determine spheres of influence during this time, ignoring the authority of the provisional government.
[edit] The division of Korea
Main article: Division of Korea
Soldiers climbing a sea wall in Incheon Soldiers climbing a sea wall in Incheon
The unconditional surrender of Japan, the earlier collapse of Nazi Germany, combined with fundamental shifts in global politics and ideology, led to the division of Korea into two occupation zones effectively starting on September 8, 1945, with the United States administering the southern half of the peninsula and the Soviet Union taking over the area north of the 38th parallel. The Provisional Government was ignored, mainly due to American misconception that it was too communist-aligned. This division was meant to be temporary and was first intended to return a unified Korea back to its people until the United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and Republic of China could arrange a trusteeship administration.
At the Cairo Conference on 22 November 1943, it was agreed that Korea would be free "in due course as one unified country”; at a later meeting in Yalta in February 1945, it was agreed to establish a four-power trusteeship over Korea. In December 1945, a conference convened in Moscow to discuss the future of Korea. A 5-year trusteeship was discussed, and a joint Soviet-American commission was established. The commission met intermittently in Seoul but deadlocked over the issue of establishing a national government. In September 1947, with no solution in sight, the United States submitted the Korean question to the UN General Assembly.
Initial hopes for a unified, independent Korea quickly evaporated as the politics of the Cold War and opposition to the trusteeship plan from Korean anti-communists resulted in the 1948 establishment of two separate nations with diametrically opposed political, economic, and social systems. On December 12, 1948, by its resolution 195[35] in the Third General Assembly, United Nation recognised Republic of Korea as the sole legal government of Korea. In June 1950 the Korean War broke out when North Korea breached the 38th parallel line to invade the South, ending any hope of a peaceful reunification for the time being.