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Hydroelectricity and Indigenous Rights in Canada

Hydroelectricity, a method of collecting/using water to generate electricity through the implementation of dams, pipes, and turbines, is a popular form of renewable energy. Canada is one of the world’s leaders in the production of hydroelectricity.  It is ranked as the world’s second largest producer, trailing only behind China. In fact, Canada generates the majority of its electricity from this method (59% in 2006), and creates 10.8% of all hydroelectricity produced worldwide. Canada’s tremendous dependence on hydroelectricity often perpetuates conflict with the indigenous peoples of the nation, typically the Metis and Inuit tribes.

The indigenous people of Canada retain specific rights which have continued to evolve from the Royal Proclamation of 1763. These rights exist in recognition of the unique condition held by the Indigenous peoples in Canada. This not only includes the basic human rights of survival and integrity (which is enforced by the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms of 1982), but also serves to preserve their language, religion, land, and cultural heritage. The indigenous hold a right of self-determination within their borders, and protection against violations by the actions of governments or groups of private interests, such as hydroelectric corporations. With Canada’s ongoing utilisation of hydroelectricity, the indigenous often have qualms with the Canadian government in regard to the several dam projects put in place. The issue of indigenous rights is also associated with other levels of human struggle. As a result of the close relationship between indigenous peoples' cultural and economic situations and their environmental settings, their rights issues are linked with concerns over environmental change and sustainable development. Hydroelectric projects are an optimal example of the indigenous dilemma regarding environmental change.

Several hydro-power projects in Canada are developed in areas which are inhabited mainly by Indigenous communities; therefore, these communities are directly affected. Not only does their acclimated environment change, their lifestyle, and their activities must both adapt. The overall impact on these communities has the potential to be positive or negative, based on the approach taken by the government and hydro-power companies. However, it is always important to consider, for ethical, practical, and equality reasons, the perspective of the local Aboriginal communities. Contrary to popular belief these communities are, for the most part, not entirely against the development of these dams; in actuality they desire to benefit from the development and have their voices heard so they may influence the manner in which the operation proceeds.

Five of the largest hydroelectric producers in 2014

Country	Annual hydroelectric production (TWh)	Installed capacity (GW)	Capacity factor	% of total production
China	1064	311	0.37	18.7%
Canada	383	76	0.59	58.3%
Brazil	373	89	0.56	63.2%
United States	282	102	0.42	6.5%
Russia	177	51	0.42	16.7%

Hydro Power and the Economy by the Numbers

Electricity comes from hydro power. It is the largest electricity source in the country and a major contributor to the economy. These figures from the Canadian Hydro-power Association illustrate the level of economic impact from hydro-power:

• Number of terawatt hours of electricity per year produced by Canadian hydro power: 355

• Number of megawatts of installed capacity: 76,000

• Amount the hydroelectric sector contributed to Canada’s GDP in 2013: $37,000,000,000

• Number of jobs, including direct, indirect and induced, supported by the hydroelectric sector in 2013: 135,000

• Amount of overall U.S. electricity supplied by Canadian hydro power: 1%

• Amount invested in hydroelectricity infrastructure in 2013: $10,100,000,000

• Amount invested in 2013 by the industry to produce, transmit and distribute hydroelectricity: $5.4,000,000,000 

• Revenue generated in 2013 from the production, transmission and distribution of hydro power: $26,000,000,000

• The amount in federal, provincial and municipal tax paid by the hydroelectric sector (direct and indirect) in 2013 from the production, transmission and distribution of electricity: $1,300,000,000

Reasons for Hydroelectricity in Canada

Hydroelectricity is a popular form of renewable energy in the modern world. This is because hydroelectricity does not harm the environment to the same extent as a fossil fuel (although it still has the potential to cause some damage), i.e. coal and oil. Hydroelectricity is also extremely efficient as it does not rely on certain weather patterns, such as the energy created from wind turbines from converting the kinetic energy of wind into mechanical power. Another reason for this form of energy is its reliability: it is not a form of solar power either, and so whether there is a lack of wind or sunlight on any given day, hydroelectricity can continue to be created.

Canada is an excellent geographical location for the implementation of hydroelectricity. Canada has around 20 percent of the world’s total freshwater resources, which is a generous endowment for a country of only 35 million (c. 2013). However, only 7 percent of this water is renewable, as much of Canada’s fossil water is retained in glaciers, underground locales, and lakes.

Hydroelectricity can be made very quickly when required. Water is stored inside of a reservoir can be release when necessary, making it a very powerful and safe method of renewable energy. As long as there is adequate water supply for hydroelectricity to be created, it cannot run out. Also, once a dam is created for the purpose of gathering this renewable energy, the cost to maintain it is very little. No waste or pollution is produced from this source of energy and it can be generated whenever needed.

Disadvantages of Hydroelectricity

Environmental Damage

Some hydroelectric power stations that use dams must submerge large areas of land in order to create a viable reservoir from which a region can gather hydroelectric energy. In turn, this submerses areas that are upstream of the dam. This has the potential to destroy biologically rich ecosystems that resides in the lowlands (grasslands, marshes, etc). The act of damming disrupts the natural flow of rivers, and the construction of large dams can involve displacing people or wildlife. This is especially true for the Aboriginal people of Canada, as their tribes are typically located around bodies of water with flourishing ecosystems to support their way of life. The indigenous people are often asked to relocate in order to construct these dams and reservoirs, and in the past the Canadian government has not taken no for an answer. Nowadays, Canada’s government is more open to negotiation with Aboriginals, rather than forcibly removing them from designated sites.

Methane Emissions from Reservoirs

Although hydroelectricity creates much less pollution from other forms of energy development, it still causes some damage to the environment. Decaying plant material in flooded areas that have low oxygen (anaerobic oxidation of methane) form methane, which is a greenhouse gas. The World Commission on Dams reported “where the reservoir is large compared to the generating capacity (less than 100 watts per square metre of surface area) and no clearing of the forests in the area was undertaken prior to the creation of the reservoir, greenhouse gas emissions from the reservoir may be higher than those of a conventional oil-fired thermal generation plant”.

Canada does not suffer as much from the ailments of greenhouse gases created by hydroelectricity. This is because reservoirs in Canada tend to be boreal (an area that consists of an abundance of pine trees) and so emissions are typically between only 2 – 8 percent of conventional fossil fuel generation.  However, there are still locations in Canada that are not boreal, such as the prairies of Alberta and Saskatchewan that have the potential to generate greenhouse gas emissions at a higher rate.

Relocation

One of the most significant disadvantages to hydroelectricity is the act of needing to move people out of the designated location so a reservoir or dam may be constructed in their place.  In 2000, the World Commission on Dams estimated that dams had physically displaced 40-80 million people worldwide. In Canada, Aboriginal people are typically the ones who are forced to relocate as they generally live in optimal locations for a dam to be constructed (around large bodies of fresh water). The Canadian government is attempting to improve its relationship with indigenous people in the 21^st century, instead of expelling them from their lands without prior consultation as they did in the past. Building constructive relationships with First Nations people is a priority under the incumbent Liberal Party of Canada, and the Liberals believe negotiating with the indigenous people is not just practical, but an ethical practice.

Why Relocations Take Place

Indigenous in Canada are relocated in order to solve problems perceived by the government or other agencies. Sometimes relocation took place in part of other changes in the Aboriginal lifestyle – changes that often result from new government policies (citation). Aboriginal relocations can be summarized in two distinct categories:

Administrative Relocations

Administrative relocations are moves carried out to facilitate the operation of government or address the perceived needs of Aboriginal people. These government operations served as the rationale for relocation in the era following the Second World War. Aboriginal people were often moved to make it easier for government administrators to provide the growing number of services and programs that were becoming available through the emerging welfare state. Critics and researchers have examined several relocations of this type because they illustrate both the erroneous assumptions made about Aboriginal ways of life and the arbitrary use of power by government officials

Canadian Examples of Administrative Relocation:

·      Mi’kmaq of Nova Scotia, 1940s: relocation to cut administrative costs of government services to Aboriginals.

·      Gwa’Sala and ‘Nakwaxda’xw of British Columbia, 1964: moved from isolated communities to amalgamate on a reserve to allow easier delivery for government programs.

·      Mushuau Innu of Labrador, 1967: moved to Iluikoyak Island so the government could have a convenient location for service delivery.

Development Relocations

Development relocations have a long history around the world and have been used frequently as a rationale to move indigenous tribes; these still continue in Canada to this day. This form of relocation is derived from development policies and serves to “benefit” Aboriginals as it gets the indigenous out of the way of proposed projects. In Canada, production of dams and reservoirs is the main reason for development relocations. While hydroelectric projects are the most significant example of development relocations, indigenous may be relocated for urban development, land reclamation, and agricultural expansion.

Canadian Examples of Development Relocations:

·       The Cheslatta Carrier Nation of British Columbia, 1950s: lost its communities when the Kemano Dam was built on the Nechako River.

·       Chemawawin Cree of Manitoba, 1950s: relocated for the construction of the Grand Rapids hydro dam.

Positive Views on Collaboration with Aboriginals

There are many Canadians that believe the government must work with the Aboriginals on dam projects in order to exemplify a true unification of the country. The Canadian Hydropower Association published an academic journal written by P. Fortin that elaborates on the benefits of maintaining positive relationships with the Aboriginals. (citation) Fortin writes that one of the many reasons the government must strengthen their relationship with the aboriginals is simple geography. “Many hydropower projects in Canada are developed in areas which are inhabited mainly by Aboriginal communities; therefore, these projects directly affect the communities, their environment, their lifestyle, and their activities”. Some believe Aboriginals have been mistreated for centuries and in the 21^st century they deserve proper representation. There is much controversy over this topic as some stand on the side of the indigenous people because they occupied the land first, while others believe the Aboriginal way of life is outdated and they must conform to the typical norms and values of a traditional Canadian.

Negative Views on Collaboration with Aboriginals

 Some Canadian citizens do not believe Aboriginals should have a right to block production desired by the government. A contributing factor to this is, according to a 2016 report from Canadian Public Opinion on Aboriginal Peoples, the average Canadian citizen is only somewhat familiar with the true issues of the indigenous people, and they believe government-Aboriginal relations are steadily improving. On the other hand, Aboriginals are more likely to state that they do not believe relations are improving. Due to the lack of acknowledgement of Aboriginal issues, Canadians usually are on their government’s side when deciding to relocate tribes for the sake of a reservoir or dam project.

Impact of Hydroelectric Dams on Aboriginals

There are hidden costs with the implementation of hydroelectric dams; some critics believe the production of these dams violates several human rights issues:

Health Impacts

Hydroelectric dams can have a great impact on the health of a region's residents. Severe health problems often occur when a reservoir is created and filled with the water required to power the project’s electric generators. Consequently, large dams create vast pools of water that serve as the perfect breeding ground for disease-carrying insects. In times past, the creation of dams has promoted the spread of malaria, hepatitis, schistosomiasis and river blindness. Despite the fact that adverse health consequences can now be accurately predicted given the particular region and climate, the productions of hydroelectric dams continue.

Engineering and Safety Issues

Dam projects tend to be rushed through the planning stages as a result of time and financial constraints. When this planning is hurried, the Aboriginal residents may be subject to negative effects. Hurried dams can result in environmental disasters; Aboriginals rely on the environment significantly. Dams that are designed poorly may also be subject to Aboriginal saboteurs, who attempt to release their anger from the government onto the dam itself. This is an unlikely circumstance, and would really only occur in the event that the Canadian government forces a tribe off its land.

Loss of Unique Resources

Aboriginals in Canada rely heavily upon their environment. Natural resources, like plants and animals, can be greatly threatened by the construction of these dams and hydroelectric plants. The quality of water can also be greatly affected. Aboriginals do not have the same access to water as the common Canadian citizen, and various health issues can arise. This is more likely to occur in less developed countries, however.An example is the Three Gorges Dam in China which destroyed several habitats, and in turn annihilated several rare species of fish and mammals.