User:Kowal2701/sandbox/History of Africa: Central Africa

Dalziel, Nigel; MacKenzie, John M, eds. (2016-01-11). "Luba-Lunda states". The Encyclopedia of Empire (1 ed.). Wiley. doi:10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe060. ISBN 978-1-118-44064-3.

• Ancient Africa (4th millennium BC to 7th century AD)
• Postclassical Africa (7th century to 1250)
• Medieval Africa (1250 to 1800)
• Early modern Africa (1800 to 1935)
• Contemporary Africa since 1935

The Congo Basin

Following the Bantu migrations, a period of state and class formation began circa 700 with four centres; one in the west around Pool Malebo, one south around the highlands of Angola, a third north-central around Lake Mai-Ndombe, and a fourth in the far southeast in the Upemba Depression.

By the 13th century there were three main confederations of states in the western Congo Basin around Pool Malebo. The Seven Kingdoms of Kongo dia Nlaza, considered to be the oldest and most powerful, likely included Nsundi, Mbata, Mpangu, and possibly Kundi and Okanga. South of these was Mpemba which stretched from its capital in northern Angola 200km north to the Congo River. It included various kingdoms such as Mpemba Kasi, its northernmost and remotest component, and Vunda. To its west across the Congo River was a confederation of three small states; Vungu (its leader), Kakongo, and Ngoyo.

The formation of the Kingdom of Kongo began in the late 13th century. Kongo oral traditions hold that Ntinu Wene (lit. "King of the Kingdom") crossed the Congo River from Vungu to conquer Mpemba Kasi, known as the "Mother of Kongo". The first kings ruled from Nsi a Kwilu, a valley and old religious centre, which produced iron and steel, and linked the copper and textile-producing north to the south. Around the 1350s Nimi Nzima established an alliance with the rulers of Mbata, who were looking to break away from the Seven Kingdoms, and agreed to secure each other's dynasties, making them known as the "Grandfather of Kongo". Tradition holds that Nimi Nzima's son, Lukeni lua Nimi, wishing to aggrandise himself, built a fortress and blocked and taxed commerce. One day his pregnant aunt refused to pay the toll, and in a rage he killed her. While reprehensible, it displayed his determination and valour. This won him followers and allowed him to embark on conquests. To the south the market town of Mpangala, itself a sub unit of Vunda, was absorbed, with Vunda also styled as a Grandfather. This weakening of Mpemba precipitated its conquest and integration into the Kingdom of Kongo. Lukeni lua Nimi also conquered Kabunga in the west, whose leaders were regional religious leaders, not dissimilar from popes. From there Soyo and Mbamba were conquered. The power and resources gained from these conquests allowed Kongo to expand north into Nsundi, which had multiple sub-units. Traditionally, a governor on Nsundi's western border forbode entry until they had fought a symbolic battle. Kongo conquered Nsundi and delegated it to a royal governor, who greatly expanded the territory, conquering Nsanga and Masinga. Northeast, Teke oral tradition holds that Mabiala Mantsi united the Bateke tribes, centralised his governance, and expanded using militaristic and diplomatic skill. Kongo's conquests eastward brought it into conflict with the formidable Teke Kingdom which halted their expansion. This expansion had primarily been done by allying and co-opting polities. By the late 15th century, Kongo had developed a new administrative system which would increase its centralisation, and after integrating Vunda, they set about conquering these polities and converting them into royal provinces.

Small confederations, like Kisama, often put up spirited and successful resistance to either internal consolidation by aggressive components, or external conquest and integration. To the south around the highlands of Angola the Ambundu kingdoms of Ndongo and Matamba formed. The Dembos confederation sat between them and Kongo. Ndongo had come under tributary status to Kongo by the 16th century, and oral traditions collected in the 17th century hold their founder, Ngola Mussuri or Bumbambula, to be a blacksmith who came there from Kongo, and was elected king (Ngola) due to his benevolence.

To its east around Lake Mai-Ndombe, there emerged Mwene Muji, likely around 1400. Their 'empire' status is pending on further archaeological research. With a powerful riverine navy, they expanded along the Kasai, Lukenie, Kamtsha, Kwilu, and Wamba rivers, without venturing much into the interior, coming to dominate trade.

Further southeast in the Upemba Depression, social stratification and governance began to form after the 10th century based on villages. "Lords of the land" held priestly roles due to their special relationship with the spirits of the land and were widely recognised, holding sway over multiple villages and essentially ruling embryonic kingdoms. As lineages grew in size, authority was opportunistically absorbed or incorporated by force, leading to the formation of states. Most of those of the southern savanna, such as the Luba-Katanga and Songye, eventually transitioned from being matrilineal to patrilineal. Perpetual kingship was practised, whereby the king 'became' his predecessor, adopting his name, kinship relations, and duties. An early state formed between the Lualaba and Lomami rivers among the Luba-Katanga, known as the Kingdom of Luba.

In the late 15th century, Kongo came into contact with the Portuguese. A Kongo delegation was invited to Lisbon in 1487, and relations were initially warm. A Portuguese priest mastered Kikongo and his input led to the baptism of Kongo's king and royal court. Commercial relations developed, with trade in slaves the most lucrative.

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