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User:Kowal2701/sandbox/History of Africa: Central Africa

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Throughout the 16th century the Ottomans conquered all of North Africa save for Morocco, which came under the rule of the Saadi dynasty at the same time, and then the Alawi dynasty in the 17th century.[1][2][3] In the Horn of Africa the Oromo expansion in the 16th century, weakening Ethiopia and collapsing Adal. Ajuran was succeeded by the Geledi Sultanate.[4] In the late 19th and early 20th centuries Ethiopia rapidly expanded.[5]

In West Africa, the Songhai Empire fell to Moroccan invasion in the late 16th century.[6] They were succeeded by the Bamana Empire. The Fula jihads beginning in the 18th century led to the establishment of the Sokoto Caliphate, the Massina Empire, and the Tukulor Empire.[7][8][9] In the forest regions, the Asante Empire was established in present-day Ghana.[10] Between 1515 and 1800, 8 million Africans were exported in the Atlantic slave trade.[11]

In the Congo Basin, Kongo fought three wars against the Portuguese who had begun colonising Angola, ending in the conquest of Ndongo in the 17th century.[12] Further east, the Lunda Empire rose to dominate the region.[13] It fell to the Chokwe in the 19th century.[14] In the northern Great Lakes, there were the kingdoms of Bunyoro-Kitara, Buganda, and Rwanda among others.[15]

Kilwa was conquered by the Portuguese in the 16th century as they began colonising Mozambique. They were defeated by the Omani Empire who took control of the Swahili coast.[16] In Madagascar the 16th century onwards saw the emergence of Imerina, the Betsileo kingdoms, and the Sakalava empire;[17] Imerina conquered most of the island in the 19th century.[18] In the Zambezi Basin Mutapa was followed by the Rozvi Empire,[19] with Maravi around Lake Malawi to its north.[20] Mthwakazi succeeded Rozvi.[21] Further south, the Dutch began colonising South Africa in the 16th century, who lost it to the British.[22] In the 19th century the Mfecane ravaged the region and led to the establishment of the Zulu Kingdom.[23]

The central Sahel

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The Congo Basin

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Following the Bantu migrations, a period of state and class formation began circa 700 with four centres; one in the west around Pool Malebo, one south around the highlands of Angola, a third north-central around Lake Mai-Ndombe, and a fourth in the far southeast in the Upemba Depression.[24]: 17–18 

By the 13th century there were three main confederations of states in the western Congo Basin around Pool Malebo. The Seven Kingdoms of Kongo dia Nlaza, considered to be the oldest and most powerful, likely included Nsundi, Mbata, Mpangu, and possibly Kundi and Okanga. South of these was Mpemba which stretched from its capital in northern Angola 200km north to the Congo River. It included various kingdoms such as Mpemba Kasi, its northernmost and remotest component, and Vunda. To its west across the Congo River was a confederation of three small states; Vungu (its leader), Kakongo, and Ngoyo.[24]: 24–25 

The formation of the Kingdom of Kongo began in the late 13th century. Kongo oral traditions hold that Ntinu Wene (lit. "King of the Kingdom") crossed the Congo River from Vungu to conquer Mpemba Kasi, known as the "Mother of Kongo".[a] The first kings ruled from Nsi a Kwilu, a valley and old religious centre, which produced iron and steel, and linked the copper and textile-producing north to the south.[24]: 25–26  Around the 1350s Nimi Nzima established an alliance with the rulers of Mbata, who were looking to break away from the Seven Kingdoms, and agreed to secure each other's dynasties, making them known as the "Grandfather of Kongo". Tradition holds that Nimi Nzima's son, Lukeni lua Nimi, wishing to aggrandise himself, built a fortress and blocked and taxed commerce. One day his pregnant aunt refused to pay the toll, and in a rage he killed her. While reprehensible, it displayed his determination and valour. This won him followers and allowed him to embark on conquests. To the south the market town of Mpangala, itself a sub unit of Vunda, was absorbed, with Vunda also styled as a Grandfather. This weakening of Mpemba precipitated its conquest and integration into the Kingdom of Kongo.[24]: 27–29  Lukeni lua Nimi also conquered Kabunga in the west, whose leaders were regional religious leaders, not dissimilar from popes. From there Soyo and Mbamba were conquered. The power and resources gained from these conquests allowed Kongo to expand north into Nsundi, which had multiple sub-units. Traditionally, a governor on Nsundi's western border forbode entry until they had fought a symbolic battle. Kongo conquered Nsundi and delegated it to a royal governor, who greatly expanded the territory, conquering Nsanga and Masinga.[24]: 29–30  Northeast, Teke oral tradition holds that Mabiala Mantsi united the Bateke tribes, centralised his governance, and expanded using militaristic and diplomatic skill.[25] Kongo's conquests eastward brought it into conflict with the formidable Teke Kingdom which halted their expansion. This expansion had primarily been done by allying and co-opting polities. By the late 15th century, Kongo had developed a new administrative system which would increase its centralisation, and after integrating Vunda, they set about conquering these polities and converting them into royal provinces.[24]: 30 

Small confederations, like Kisama, often put up spirited and successful resistance to either internal consolidation by aggressive components, or external conquest and integration.[24]: 23  To the south around the highlands of Angola the kingdoms of Ndongo and Matamba formed. The Dembos confederation sat between them and Kongo.

To its east around Lake Mai-Ndombe, there emerged Mwene Muji, likely around 1400. Their 'empire' status is pending on further archaeological research. With a powerful riverine navy, they expanded along the Kasai, Lukenie, Kamtsha, Kwilu, and Wamba rivers, without venturing much into the interior, coming to dominate trade.[26]

Further southeast in the Upemba Depression, social stratification and governance began to form after the 10th century based on villages.[24]: 18–19  Most of those of the southern savanna, such as the Luba-Katanga and Songye, were patrilineal, however the Luba-Kasai were initially matrilineal. "Lords of the land" held priestly roles and due to their special relationship with the spirits of the land and were widely recognised, holding sway over multiple villages and essentially ruling embryonic kingdoms. As lineages grew in size, authority was either absorbed or incorporated by force, leading to the formation of states.[27]: 557–558  Perpetual kingship was practised, whereby the king 'became' his predecessor, adopting his name, kinship relations, and duties.[27]: 569 

In the late 15th century, Kongo came into contact with the Portuguese.[24]: 37 

References

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  1. ^ Vesely, Rudolf (1992). "The Ottoman conquest of Egypt". General History of Africa: Volume 5. UNESCO Publishing.
  2. ^ Cherif, Mohammed (1992). "Algeria, Tunisia and Libya: The Ottomans and their heirs". General History of Africa: Volume 5. UNESCO Publishing.
  3. ^ El Fasi, Mohammad (1992). "Morocco". General History of Africa: Volume 5. UNESCO Publishing.
  4. ^ Haberland, Eike (1992). "The Horn of Africa". General History of Africa: Volume 5. UNESCO Publishing.
  5. ^ Pankhurst, Richard (1989). "Ethiopia and Somalia". General History of Africa: Volume 6. UNESCO Publishing.
  6. ^ Abitbol, Michel (1992). "The end of the Songhay empire". General History of Africa: Volume 5. UNESCO Publishing.
  7. ^ Batran, Aziz (1989). "The nineteenth-century Islamic revolutions in West Africa". General History of Africa: Volume 6. UNESCO Publishing.
  8. ^ Last, Murray (1989). "The Sokoto caliphate and Borno". General History of Africa: Volume 6. UNESCO Publishing.
  9. ^ Ly-Tall, Madina (1989). "Massina and Torodbe (Tukuloor) empire until 1878". General History of Africa: Volume 6. UNESCO Publishing.
  10. ^ Boahen, Albert (1989). "The states and cultures of the Lower Guinea coast". General History of Africa: Volume 6. UNESCO Publishing.
  11. ^ Bulliet et al. 2015b, p. 512
  12. ^ Vansina, Jan (1992). "The Kongo kingdom and its neighbours". General History of Africa: Volume 5. UNESCO Publishing.
  13. ^ Nzieme, Isidore (1992). "The political system of the Luba and Lunda: its emergence and expansion". General History of Africa: Volume 5. UNESCO Publishing.
  14. ^ Vellut, Jean-Luc (1989). "The Congo basin and Angola". General History of Africa: Volume 6. UNESCO Publishing.
  15. ^ Webster, James; Ogot, Bethwell; Chretien, Jean-Pierre (1992). "The Great Lakes region: 1500–1800". General History of Africa: Volume 5. UNESCO Publishing.
  16. ^ Salim, Ahmed (1992). "East Africa: The coast". General History of Africa: Volume 5. UNESCO Publishing.
  17. ^ Kent, Raymond (1992). "Madagascar and the islands of the Indian Ocean". General History of Africa: Volume 5. UNESCO Publishing.
  18. ^ Mutibwa, Phares (1989). "Madagascar 1800–80". General History of Africa: Volume 6. UNESCO Publishing.
  19. ^ Bhila, Hoyini (1992). "Southern Zambezia". General History of Africa: Volume 5. UNESCO Publishing.
  20. ^ Phiri, Kings; Kalinga, Owen; Bhila, Hoyini (1992). "The northern Zambezia-Lake Malawi region". General History of Africa: Volume 5. UNESCO Publishing.
  21. ^ Isaacman, Allen (1989). "The countries of the Zambezi basin". General History of Africa: Volume 6. UNESCO Publishing.
  22. ^ Denoon, Donald (1992). "Southern Africa". General History of Africa: Volume 5. UNESCO Publishing.
  23. ^ Ncgongco, Leonard (1992). "The Mfecane and the rise of the new African states". General History of Africa: Volume 6. UNESCO Publishing.
  24. ^ a b c d e f g h i Thornton, John K., ed. (2020), "The Development of States in West Central Africa to 1540", A History of West Central Africa to 1850, New Approaches to African History, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 16–55, ISBN 978-1-107-56593-7, retrieved 2024-09-21
  25. ^ "▷ Who is the founder of the Téké kingdom? |". visitfranceguide.com (in Spanish). 2024-09-16. Retrieved 2024-10-23.
  26. ^ Thornton, John (2024). "Mwene Muji: A Medieval Empire in Central Africa?". The Journal of African History. 65 (1): 30–46. doi:10.1017/S0021853724000161. ISSN 0021-8537.
  27. ^ a b Vansina, Jan (1984). "Equatorial Africa and Angola: Migrations and the emergence of the first states". General History of Africa: Volume 4. UNESCO Publishing.
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