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Hinduism originated in India as a fusion[a] or synthesis[b] of Brahmanical orthopraxy[c] with various Indian cultures and traditions,[d] possibly around c. 500[1] to 200 BC[2] or c. 300 AD,[1] and have no specific founder.[3]

DRAFT

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Polity Dynasty Ruler Religion of ruling dynasty Origin Notes
First Last List
Median kingdom Median dynasty Deioces (700–678 BC) or Phraortes (678–625 BC) Astyages (585–550 BC)
—
 Ancient Iranian religion Median
  • In spite of the fact that the Medes managed to form a powerful kingdom stretching from northern Mesopotamia to Bactria, our knowledge of them is scant, as no inscriptions or coins have been found to throw light on their history or society.[4]
  • The existence of a Median Empire is still under debate, see the historicity of Median Empire.
Achaemenid Empire Achaemenid dynasty Cyrus the Great (550–530 BC) Darius III (336–330 BC)
The later Achaemenids were clearly Zoroastrians, but the religion of the early kings has been much debated.[5][1] Under the Artaxerxes I (r. 465–424) the Zoroastrian faith seems to have finally become the religion of the Achaemenids, evidenced by the royal adoption of the Zoroastrian calendar.[1]
 Persian Conquered by the Alexander the Great (356–323 BC) of Macedonia.
Parthian Empire Arsacid dynasty Arsaces I (247–217 BC) Artabanus IV (213–224 CE) see

It is not known how Zoroastrian the Parthians were.[e]

Parni[f]
—
Sasanian Empire Sasanian dynasty Ardashir I (224–242) Yazdegerd III (632–651) see Zoroastrianism Persian

Conquered by the Muslims under the Rashidun Caliphate, shortly after the lifetime of Muhammad (c. 570–632), the founder of Islam.

Saffarid dynasty Ya'qub ibn al-Layth al-Saffar (861–879) Khalaf ibn Ahmad (963–1002)
—
 Islam eastern Iranian

The rise of the dynasty was important in initiating a practically independent power by the Persians after their devastating defeat by the Arabs in the 7th century.[8]

Samanid Empire
see
 see the Samanid rulers Islam (Sunni) unknown Iranian

The last Iranian dynasty of Central Asia which unified the area under one rule and saved the legacy of ancient Iran from extinction.[9]

Buyid dynasty
see
see
 Islam (Shia) Daylamite[10]
—
Ghaznavids Sabuktigin (977–997) Khusrau Malik (1160–1186) Islam (Sunni) unknown Turkic[h]

They were highly Persianized.[12][13][14][15]

Seljuk Empire Seljuk dynasty Tughril I (1037–1063) Toghrul III (1176–1194) see Islam (Sunni) Oghuz Turkic

Generally considered as a Turko-Persian state.[16][17][18][19]

Khwarezmian Empire Anushtegin dynasty
see
 Jalal al-Din Mangburni (1220–1231)
—
 Islam (Sunni) unknown Turkic[i]
—
Ilkhanate Hulegu Khan (1256–1260 as vassal of Mongol Empire; 1260–1265 as independent) Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan (1316–1335) Various, including Buddhism and Islam Mongol
The name of 'Iran' was used for the dynastic realm and a pre-modern ethno-national history of Iranian dynasties was arranged. Iranian identity and the pattern of the use of the term of "Iran" in Persian literature have a resurgence phase under the Ilkhans and Timurids.[21]
Timurid Empire Timurid dynasty Timur (1370–1405) see the Timurid rulers Islam (Sunni) Turkified Mongol[j]
Qara Qoyunlu Bayram Khwaja (1351–1380) Hasan Ali see Islam[k] Oghuz Turkic (Turkoman)
Oghuz Turkic (Turkoman) tribal conferedations.
Aq Qoyunlu Qara Yuluk Uthman Beg (1378–1435) Sultan Murad (1497–1508) see Islam (Sunni) Oghuz Turkic (Turkoman)
Safavid Iran Safavid dynasty Ismail I (1501–1524) Abbas III (1732–1736) see Islam (Shia) Iranian,[23] probably Kurdish[24][l]
Afsharid Iran Afsharid dynasty Nader Shah (1736–1747) Shahrokh Shah (1748–1750)
—
 Islam[m] Oghuz Turkic (Turkoman)
—
Zand dynasty Karim Khan Zand (1751–1779) Lotf Ali Khan (1789–1794) Islam (Shia) Lur[n][29] or Kurdish
Qajar Iran Qajar dynasty Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar (1789–1797) Ahmad Shah Qajar (1909–1925) Islam (Shia) Oghuz Turkic (Turkoman)
Pahlavi Iran Pahlavi dynasty Reza Shah (1925–1941) Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (1941–1979) Islam (Shia), but state is secular as de facto. Mazanderani and unknown[o]
It was destroyed with the Iranian revolution and Islamic Republic of Iran was established in its place by Ruhollah Khomeini (1900 or 1902[p]–1989).

Sources

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Book

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  • Canfield, R. L. (1991). "Introduction: the Turko-Persian tradition". In Canfield, R.L (ed.). Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective. Cambridge University Press.
  • Spuler, B. (1970). "The Disintegration of the Caliphate in the East". In Holt, P. M.; Lambton, A. K. S.; Lewis, Bernard (eds.). The Cambridge History of Islam: the Central Islamic Lands from pre-Islamic Times to the First World War. Vol. 1A. Cambridge University Press.
  • Savory, R. M. (1970). "The Safavid Persia". In Holt, P. M.; Lambton, A. K. S.; Lewis, Bernard (eds.). The Cambridge History of Islam: the Central Islamic Lands from pre-Islamic Times to the First World War. Vol. 1A. Cambridge University Press.
  • Neumann, I. B.; Wigen, E. (2018). The Steppe Tradition in International Relations: Russians, Turks and European State Building, 4000 BCE–2018 CE. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-35530-8.
  • Hathaway, J. (2003). A Tale of Two Factions: Myth, Memory, and Identity in Ottoman Egypt and Yemen. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-5884-6.
  • Khazonov, A. M. (2015). "Pastoral nomadic migrations and conquests". In Kedar, B. Z.; Wiesner-Hanks, M. E. (eds.). The Cambridge World History: Expanding Webs of Exchange and Conflict. Vol. 5. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-19074-9.
  • Partridge, C. (2018). High Culture: Drugs, Mysticism, and the Pursuit of Transcendence in the Modern World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-045911-6.
  • Frye, R. N. (1975). "The Sāmānids". In Fyre, R. N. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran: From the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs. Vol. 4. Cambridge University Press.
  • Amanat, A. (2017). Iran: a Modern History. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300231465.
  • Matthee, R. (2005). The Pursuit of Pleasure: Drugs and Stimulants in Iranian History, 1500-1900. Princeton Universty Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-3260-6.
  • Tapper, R. L. (1997). Frontier Nomads of Iran: A Political and Social History of the Shahsevan. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521583367.
  • Manz, B. F. (2021). Nomads in the Middle East. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139028813.

Encyclopedia

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Journal

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  • de Jong, A. (2008). "Regional Variation in Zoroastrianism: The Case of the Parthians". Bulletin of the Asia Institute. 22: 17–27. JSTOR 24049232.

References

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  1. ^ a b c d Hiltebeitel 2002, p. 12. Cite error: The named reference ":0" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  2. ^ Larson 2009.
  3. ^ Fowler 1997, pp. 1, 7.
  4. ^ Yarshater 2004d, pp. 212–225.
  5. ^ Boyce 1983, p. 426–429: "The sources are threefold: Greek writings, Achaemenid monuments and artifacts, and texts from Persia in Old Persian, Elamite, and Aramaic. The Greek writings establish with all reasonable clarity that the later Achaemenids were Zoroastrians; but the religion of the early kings has been much debated."
  6. ^ Lecoq 1986, p. 151: "APARNA (Gk. Aparnoi/Parnoi, Lat. Aparni or Parni), an east Iranian tribe established on the Ochos (modern Taǰen, Teǰend) and one of the three tribes in the confederation of the Dahae (Dahā in the inscription of Xerxes, Ph 26, see Kent, Old Persian, p. 151)."
  7. ^ Yarshater 2004d, p. 212–225: "The Arsacids (q.v.) came from a Saka tribe, the Aparni (see APARNA), who penetrated Parthia, adopted its language, and eventually challenged the Seleucids when the Arsacid eponymous king Arsaces (Aršak) challenged the Seleucids’ power in Parthia in 247 B.C.E."
  8. ^ Yarshater 2004, pp. 227–230.
  9. ^ Frye 1975, p. 160.
  10. ^ Nagel 1990, pp. 578–586.
  11. ^ Ashraf 2006, p. 507–522.
  12. ^ Spuler 1970, p. 147 "At that period they were represented by Maḥmūd of Ghazna (388–421/998–1030), one of the great figures of Islamic history, a convinced Sunnī–as were also the Kara-Khanids–and ruler while Firdawsī was writing his Shāh-nāma. One of the effects of the renaissance of the Persian spirit evoked by this work was that the Ghaznavids were also persianized and thereby became a Persian dynasty."
  13. ^ Ziad 2006, p. 294: "The Ghaznavids inherited Samanid administrative, political, and cultural traditions and laid the foundations for a Persianate state in northern India."
  14. ^ Canfield 1991, p. 8: "The Ghaznavids (989–1149) were essentially Persianized Turks who in the manner of the pre-Islamic Persians encouraged the development of high culture."
  15. ^ Yarshater 2004, pp. 227–230: "Although the Ghaznavids were of Turkic origin and their military leaders were generally of the same stock, as a result of the original involvement of Sebüktegin and Mahmud in Samanid affairs and in the Samanid cultural environment, the dynasty became thoroughly Persianized (see Omidsalar, 1999), so that in practice one cannot consider their rule one of foreign domination. In terms of cultural championship and the support of Persian poets, they were far more Persian than the ethnically Iranian Buyids, whose support of Arabic letters in preference to Persian is well known."
  16. ^ Khazonov 2015, p. 373: "The Seljuk Empire was another Turco-Iranian state, and its creation was unexpected even by the Seljuks themselves."
  17. ^ Neumann & Wigen 2018, p. 135: "The Seljuq Empire is nevertheless the foremost example of a Turko-Persian Islamic empire."
  18. ^ Partridge 2018, p. 96: "Under his leadership, the Nezāris mounted a decentralized revolutionary effort against the militarily superior Turko-Persian Saljuq empire."
  19. ^ Hathaway 2003, p. 98: "Farther east, medieval Turco-Iranian military patronage states, such as those of the Ghaznavids, Seljuks, Timurids, and early Ottomans, appear to have been more directly affected by the banner traditions of the nomadic Turkic and Mongol populations of the Central Asian steppes, who in turn were influenced by the traditions of the various empires and kingdoms that ruled China, Japan, and Korea."
  20. ^ Bosworth 1986, p. 140.
  21. ^ Ashraf 2006, p. 507–522: "Iranian identity and the pattern of the use of the term “Iran” in Persian literature evolved in four main phases in the medieval Islamic era: a revival phase under the Persian regional dynasties; a rather complex phase under the Saljuqs, a resurgence phase under the Mongols and Timurids; and finally, the formation of a hybrid Iranian-Shiʿite identity under the Safavids. [...] The long period of Turkish rule in Iran could itself be divided into a number of distinct periods in terms of Iranian identity: the Ghaznavid transitional period with the continuity of Samanid tradition (see above); the Saljuq period, marking a complex situation for Iranian identity; the Mongol and Timurid phase, during which the name “Iran” was used for the dynastic realm and a pre-modern ethno-national history of Iranian dynasties was arranged; and the period from the Safavids to the end of the Qajars, when a clear Iranian-Shiʿite identity, based on an amalgamation of Turk and Fārs elements, emerged."
  22. ^ Yarshater 2004b, pp. 230–231: "Timur belonged to a clan of the Chaghatayid Mongols that had been Turkified, and, in the chaotic and war-torn situation that prevailed in Central Asia in the mid-fourteenth century as a result of the decay of the Chaghatayid power, he was able to establish a military presence there, eventually becoming the master of Transoxiana."
  23. ^ Savory 1970, p. 394: "Despite recent research, the origins of the Safavid family are still obscure. Such evidence as we have seems to suggest that the family hailed from Kurdistān. What does seem certain is that the Safavids were of native Iranian stock, and spoke Āzarī, the form of Turkish used in Āzarbāyjān. Our lack of reliable information derives from the fact that the Safavids, after the establishment of the Safavid state, deliberately falsified the evidence of their own origins."
  24. ^ Amoretti & Matthee 2009: "Of Kurdish ancestry, the Ṣafavids started as a Sunnī mystical order (...)"
    Matthee 2005, p. 18: "The Safavids, as Iranians of Kurdish ancestry and of nontribal background, did not fit this pattern, although the stat they set up with the aid of Turkmen tribal forces of Eastern Anatolia closely resembled this division in its makeup. Yet, the Turk versus Tajik division was not impregnable."
    Matthee 2008: "As Persians of Kurdish ancestry and of a non-tribal background, the Safavids did not fit this pattern, though the state they set up with the assistance of Turkmen tribal forces of eastern Anatolia closely resembled this division in its makeup."
    Savory 2008, p. 8: "This official version contains textual changes designed to obscure the Kurdish origins of the Safavid family and to vindicate their claim to descent from the Imams."
    Hamid 2006, p. 456–474: "The Safavids originated as a hereditary lineage of Sufi shaikhs centered on Ardabil, Shafeʿite in school and probably Kurdish in origin."
    Amanat 2017, p. 40 "The Safavi house originally was among the landowning nobility of Kurdish origin, with affinity to the Ahl-e Haqq in Kurdistan (chart 1). In the twelfth century, the family settled in northeastern Azarbaijan, where Safi al-Din Ardabili (d. 1334), the patriarch of the Safavid house and Ismail's ancestor dating back six generations, was a revered Sufi leader."
    Tapper 1997, p. 39: "The Safavid Shahs who ruled Iran between 1501 and 1722 descended from Sheikh Safi ad-Din of Ardabil (1252–1334). Sheikh Safi and his immediate successors were renowned as holy ascetics Sufis. Their own origins were obscure; probably of Kurdish or Iranian extraction, they later claimed descent from the Prophet."
    Manz 2021, p. 169: "The Safavid dynasty was of Iranian – probably Kurdish – extraction and had its beginnings as a Sufi order located at Ardabil near the eastern border of Azerbaijan, in a region favorable for both agriculture and pastoralism."
  25. ^ Yarshater 2004c, p. 234–238: "The origins of the Safavids are clouded in obscurity. They may have been of Kurdish origin (see R. Savory, Iran Under the Safavids, 1980, p. 2; R. Matthee, “Safavid Dynasty” at iranica.com), but for all practical purposes they were Turkish-speaking and Turkified."
  26. ^ Perry 2006: "In the 16th century, the Turcophone Safavid family of Ardabil in Azerbaijan, probably of Turkicized Iranian (perhaps Kurdish), origin, conquered Iran and established Turkic, the language of the court and the military, as a high-status vernacular and a widespread contact language, influencing spoken Persian, while written Persian, the language of high literature and civil administration, remained virtually unaffected in status and content."
  27. ^ Yarshater 2004c, p. 234–238: "The Zand were a Lor tribe that lived in the vicinity of Malāyer in western Persia."
  28. ^ Perry 2011, pp. 561–564: "The Zand were a pastoral tribe of the Lak branch of the northern Lors, ranging between the inner Zagros and the Hamadān plains, centered on the villages of Pari and Kamāzān in the vicinity of Malāyer."
  29. ^ Perry 2000: "The founder of the dynasty was Moḥammad Karim Khan b. Ināq Khan (Figure 1; commonly known as Karim Khan Zand) of the Bagala branch of the Zand, a pastoral tribe of the Lak branch of Lors (perhaps originally Kurds; see Minorsky, p. 616), with winter ranges on the Hamadan plains near Malāyer and summer pastures in the Zagros slopes north of Kermanshah."

Notes

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  1. ^ Lockard 2007, p. 50: "The encounters that resulted from Aryan migration brought together several very different peoples and cultures, reconfiguring Indian society. Over many centuries a fusion of Aryan and Dravidian occurred, a complex process that historians have labeled the Indo-Aryan synthesis."
    Lockard 2007, p. 52: "Hinduism can be seen historically as a synthesis of Aryan beliefs with Harappan and other Dravidian traditions that developed over many centuries."
  2. ^ Hiltebeitel 2002, p. 12: "A period of consolidation, sometimes identified as one of 'Hindu synthesis', 'Brahmanic synthesis', or 'orthodox synthesis', takes place between the time of the late Vedic Upanishads (c. 500 BCE) and the period of Gupta imperial ascendency (c. 320–467 CE)."
  3. ^ Samuel 2008, p. 194: "The Brahmanical pattern"
    Flood 1996, p. 16: "The tradition of brahmanical orthopraxy has played the role of 'master narrative'"
    Hiltebeitel 2002, p. 12: "Brahmanical synthesis"
    According to Heesterman 2005, Brahmanism developed out of the Historical Vedic religion; "It is loosely known as Brahmanism because of the religious and legal importance it places on the brāhmaṇa (priestly) class of society." According to Witzel 1995, this development started around 1000 BCE in the Kuru Kingdom, with the Brahmins providing elaborate rituals to enhance the status of the Kuru kings.
  4. ^ Among its roots are the Vedic religion of the late Vedic period (Flood 1996, p. 16) and its emphasis on the status of Brahmans (Samuel 2008, pp. 48–53), but also the religions of the Indus Valley civilisation (Narayanan 2009, p. 11; Lockard 2007, p. 52; Hiltebeitel 2002, p. 3; Jones & Ryan 2007, p. xviii) the śramaṇa or renouncer traditions of northeastern India (Flood 1996, p. 16; Gomez 2013, p. 42), with possible roots in a non-Vedic Indo-Aryan culture (Bronkhorst 2007); and "popular or local traditions" (Flood 1996, p. 16) and prehistoric cultures "that thrived in South Asia long before the creation of textual evidence that we can decipher with any confidence." (Doniger 2010, p. 66)
  5. ^ Some opinions are:
    Boyce 1986, p. 540–541: "Nothing is known of the religion of the Parni before they entered Parthia, but it seems likely that it was essentially the ancient Iranian polytheism, perhaps already influenced by Zoroastrianism. The immigrants are known to have adopted the Parthians’ language, and with it they presumably took over elements of their culture, including their more evolved, Zoroastrian religion. Since, moreover, it is politically expedient for ruler and ruled to be of one faith, it may reasonably be assumed that, at least from the time they seized power, the Arsacids were professed Zoroastrians.
    de Jong 2008, p. 24: "It is impossible to doubt that the Parthians were Zoroastrians. The evidence from the Nisa ostraca and the Parthian parchment from Avroman suffice to prove this, by the use of the Zoroastrian calendar, which was restricted in use, as it had been previously, to communication with Iranians only, yielding to the Seleucid calendar whenever the Parthians dealt with non-Zoroastrians. There are indications, however, that the practice of Zoroastrianism had reserved a large place for the cult of divine images, either those of ancestors in the Fravashi cult, or of deities, and for the existence of sanctuaries dedicated to named deities other than Ahura Mazda, and including deities that are of a non-Avestan background. The Parthian god Sasan is a case in point, but better evidence comes from Armenia, where alongside Aramazd and Anahit, Mher and Vahagn, the West Semitic god Barshamin, and Babylonian Nane were worshipped, as well as the Anatolian Tork and the goddess Astghik of disputed origins."
  6. ^ The Parni was an eastern Iranian tribe established on the Amu Darya in the conferedation of Dahae.[6] To Yarshater, they were a Saka tribe.[7]
  7. ^ Present-day Tashkent.
  8. ^ Ashraf notes that: "It was in this atmosphere that Persian literati invented genealogies to connect the Ghaznavids to the Sasanids. According to a genealogy cited by Juzjāni, Sebüktigin, through six generation from his father, was the descendant of Yazdgerd III’s daughter (see Bosworth, p. 61). This genealogical invention is similar to the efforts by Persians to cast the fourth Shiʿite Imam as the maternal grandson of the last Sasanid king Yazdgerd III by supportive genealogies (see further below)."[11]
  9. ^ Bosworth on the origin of Anushtegin Gharchai: "Anūštigin’s nesba of “Ḡaṛčaʾī” presumably relates to the region of Ḡaṛčestān in northwestern Afghanistan, to the north of the Harī-rūd, where Anūštigin had been originally bought by the commander Bilge Beg (Ebn al-Aṯīr, X, p. 267); Kafesoğlu has surmised that he was possibly of Čigil or Ḵalaǰ Turkish origin, while Z. V. Togan (“Hârizm,” İA) put forward the view that he was of Qipchaq, Qanḡlï or Uighur Turkish stock."[20]
  10. ^ Timur was of Turkified Mongol descent.[22]
  11. ^ Possibly Shia, see religion of Qara Qoyunlu.
  12. ^ They claimed ancestry from Musa al-Kazim (c. 745–c. 799), the seventh Imam in Twelver Shi'ism.
  13. ^ See the religious policy of Nader Shah.
  14. ^ The Zand tribe is described as a Lur tribe.[27][28]
  15. ^ See the early life of Reza Shah.
  16. ^ See the childhood of Khomeini.
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