User:Kevin J Mc Carthy

Kevin J Mc Carthy studied a Masters (MSc) in Environmental Protection at Salford University in 2005-06. Kevin J Mc Carthy is to be awarded the MSc Environmental Protection at graduation in July 2007

Dissertation

Land Reclaimation of two former Soviet Military Bases located in Northern Bohemian of the Czech Republic (CR).

Chapter 1. Introduction to the history and geography of the Czech Republic.

1.1 A Geographical Introduction

The Czech Republic (ČR) is an independent nation geographically located in Central Europe with 10.4 million inhabitants (UN 2006), it is a land locked country with a total area of 78,866 sq km (30,450 sq miles). It as 2,303 km of borders, with Germany to the North West (NW), Poland to the North East (NE), Austria to the South West (SW) and Slovakia to the South East (SE).

The ČR is divided into Bohemia (Capital of the ČR is Prague) to the NW, Moravia to the SE and part of Silesia also SE. Bohemia consists of a natural basin, drained by the Elbe (Czech: Labem) and Vltava rivers, with an area of 52,750 sq. km. and is home to 6.25 million of the ČR 's 10.4 million inhabitants, (UN 2005) with a GNI per capita: US $10,710 (World Bank, 2005). Bohemia's borders are marked with Volatic Basalt and Sandstone mountain ranges such as the Šumava, the Ore Mountains or Giant Mountains as part of the Sudeten mountains (NW). The highest being the Sněžka (5,256 ft) on the Polish Border (N).

Bohemia is dominated by heavy woodland and forestry which largely escaped aggressive tree harvesting and land clearance, covering 85% of Bohemia and forming the basis for several National Parks. The local climate is warm temperatures in summer with frequent storms and cold, cloudy, humid winters, with heavy snow fall in the mountains. Rainwater from the ČR flows to three different seas: the North Sea, Baltic Sea and Black Sea.

To the NW of Bohemia is the infamous “Black Triangle” (BT) an area heavily industrialised during the soviet occupation, bordering Poland and Germany, with significant contamination of the geological environment and ground water caused by industrial activities within the BT particularly by chemical, petrochemical, metallurgical industries, coke producing, and brown coal and uranium mining.

A further major difficulty faced within the BT is the heavy soil and water pollution caused by chemicals namely Petroleum Hydrocarbons (PH) in the form of Jet Propulsion (JP) fuel. The PH frequently saturated the ground during improper handling and storage at AFBs over the 23 years of occupation of Soviet forces. This endangers groundwater resources and imposes a limit on future uses and revitalisation of the site.

The term “rock environment” is widely used in the ČR instead of “soil” due to the natural geology, which is dominated by near-surface rock formations, some are highly fissured and some of which are very porous. Many of these formations are critical from a water supply point of view.

1.2 History of the region

In 1968 attempts by Alexandra Dubcek, the moderate Czechoslovakia (CZ) Premier, at introducing the "Acceptable face of socialism" during the “Prague Spring” in CZ by developing independent reform was crushed by the arrival of Soviet tanks under the Casus belli of“Fratenal Assistance” (Valenta 1991).

The orders for the invasion were from Leonard Brezhnev General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1964 to 1982, who publicly criticized the Czech leadership as "revisionist" and "anti-Soviet". Brezhnev's assertion that the Soviet Union had the right to interfere in the internal affairs of its satellites to "safeguard socialism" became known as the Brezhnev Doctrine.

"When forces that are hostile to socialism try to turn the development of some socialist country towards capitalism, it becomes not only a problem of the country concerned, but a common problem and concern of all socialist countries.” Leonard Brezhnev

An Air- landing of Soviet troops at Rhuyne (Prague) airport on 20 August 1968 signalled the commencement of “Operace Dunaj", Operation Danube, the invasion of CZ by Soviet led Warsaw Pact forces consisting of 23 Soviet Divisions, 2 East German Divisions, 2 Polish Divisions and a Bulgarian Brigade (RGVA 2006) regardless to the fact CZ was a foundering member of the Warsaw Pact since 1955. (Source2006). The invading forces met no resistance from the CZ Armed forces only from CZ populace. In late 1968 saw largest Warsaw pact military exercises in CZ.

It began 23 years Soviet occupation of CZ, ending in1991, leaving behind a brutal legacy of environmental damage in Northern Bohemia.

The Soviet Central Army Group Headquarters Centralnaya Gruppa Voisk (CGV) was located in the town of Milovice-Mladá, 50km north east of Prague, with large elements of Soviet air power, which were stationed at forward bases in CZ. (Wragg 2003) The CGV Forces comprised of 131 Air Division, two tank divisions, three mechanized infantry divisions, three missile brigades, an artillery brigade, and an airborne assault brigade with a total strength was about 100,000 Soviet military personnel within CZ.

The Soviet purpose in maintaining troop units of the magnitude of the CGV was twofold: firstly, to avoid any future CZ independent reforms, thus ensuring Soviet Communist domination and secondly it formed a part of the main concentration of Warsaw Pact forces on its Westernmost Frontier against NATO forces and was continually manned and equipped at wartime levels between 1968-1991.Which constantly placed Soviet military manpower and equipment under enormous pressure.

The CGV Forces were a direct result of the 1968 invasion, prior CZ had had no Soviet troops stationed permanently within its borders. For several years after the invasion, the deployment was referred to officially as "temporary," and a commission for the Temporary Stationing of Soviet Forces on Czechoslovak Territory existed for at least the first ten years. The posting of the CGV to CZ held prominence within the senior Soviet military as it provided deployment, which offered degree of permanence and promotional opportunities for a largely inactive force.

    Nature and extent of the Soviet Military occupation of the CZ 

1.4.1 List of former Soviet Air Force Bases (AFB) in Czechoslovakia (4 AFBs only)

Mimoň-Hradčany (AFB) Located at 50º39N 14º44E (Letecka 2005). (Fig 3).

A Northern Bohemian Airfield founded by the Luftwaffe in 1940,during the German Fascist military occupation between 1938 to1945, then stationed by the CZ Air Force from 1945, and occupied by the Soviet 131st Air Division VVS from 1968 to1991 (Fig 7).

Milovice-Mladá (AFB) Located at 50º14N 14º53E (Letecka 2005). Olomouc-Neředín (AFB) Located at 99º35N 17º16E (Letecka 2005). Sliač-Hájniky (AFB) Located in Slovakia.

1.4.2 Locations of former Soviet Army Divisions in Czechoslovakia (CZ) Four of the five Soviet Army Divisions were based in CZ now in the ČR.

Milovice-Mladá (Bozi Dar) 50º14N 14º53E. Located in Central Bohemia, former HQ CGV & HQ 15th Guards Tank Division (GARF 2006).

In 1950, HQ CGV established the largest Military Training Area (MTA) in Central Europe. Located in Milovice-Mladá, South of Ralsko, Northern Bohemia an area of 254 Km sq. Located on the MTA was an Anti Aircraft Missile Brigade supported by the 373 Missile fuel Repository Unit & the 96 Mobile repair shop (GARF 2006).

Mlada Boleslaw 50º 28 N 14º55E Central Bohemia 18th Motorised Infantry Division. Vysoke Myto 49º 57N 16º 09E Eastern Bohemia 48 Motorised Infantry Division Bruntal 49º 59N 17º 28E East Moravia HQ 31st Tank Division The fifth Division was based in Zvolen, Slovakia.

1.4.3 Soviet Aircraft and key military vehicles deployed in Bohemian Region.

The Mikoyan-Gurevich MIG 21 was introduced into CZ, 9 May 1963, and thousands were built at Aero-Vodochody Jet manufacturer in Prague (Taylor 1975).

Figure 4. An early photograph of a Soviet MIG 21 in CZ 1969. Source: Hottmar, Russian State Military Archive (RGVA) 2002. The MIG 21 (Fig 4) NATO Designate "Fishbed” was a single-seater fighter with a Tumansky r-25 afterburning turbo jet engine developed as point defence interceptors designed for quick take off, fast climb to altitude, destroy incoming NATO bombers and land for re fuelling (Almquist 1990). Stationed at Mimoň-Hradčany AFB.

The MIG 23M Fighter Bombers NATO Designate “Flogger”, with an afterburning turbofan engine and external "drop tanks" for additional JP fuel to increase bombing range and flight time (Wragg 2000). Stationed at Mimoň-Hradčany AFB.

General characteristics and Specifications of the Soviet MIG 29.

The MIG 29 Klimov RD 3 / Designate "Fulcrum A" Multi Role Fighter was introduced in June 1983 to the 114 Interceptor Regiment, (Endres et al 2005) of the Soviet Frontal Aviation “Frontovaya Avaitsiya” based at Milovice-Mladá AFB

Crew: One Length: 15.76 m (51 ft 8 in) Height: 4.12 m (13 ft 6 in) Max take off weight: 9,660 kg (21,300 lb). Maximum speed: 2230 km/h (1385 mph) Range: 450-500 km (280-310 mi)

Armament One twin-barreled 23 mm cannon. Up to 2,000 kg (4,400 lb) of air-to-air and air-to-ground missiles and two 450 litre of JP fuel tanks under the wings.

All MIG aircraft demanded a high volume of Jet Propulsion (JP) Fuel to remain airborne efficient for flight exercises and high military readiness during the “Cold War”. This placed an incredible logistic burden upon the military. In the late 1980s MIG 29s departed every four minutes during intensive military exercise periods.

General characteristics and Specifications of the Mi24 “Hind”

The Helicopter Regiments were equipped with Mi24 “Hind” (Attack Helicopter) (Fig 6). Extensively used and based at both Milovice-Mladá AFB & Milovice-Mladá AFB.

Crew: 3 (Capacity: 8 troops or 4 stretchers)

Length: 57ft 4in Height: 21 ft 3in (6.5 m)

Max speed 208 mph (335km/h) Range 280 miles (450 km)

Armament 12.7 mm YaKB multi-barrel machinegun 1,500 kg of bombs, 4× Anti-tank guided missiles 4× 57 mm S-5 rocket pods, 2× twin barrel cannon pods or 4× external fuel tanks

Letiště / Airfield	číslo a název pluku / Regiment	Letky/ Sdn-Wing	výzbroj –Armament	počet 

MILOVICE-MLADÁ (BOŽÍ DAR)

Both the TU 134 (Training) & L-39 Albatross-Jet Trainer were built by Aero-Vodochody (AV), both were highly reliable and easy to maintain, generally with low fuel capacity demanding continual refuelling (Almquist 1990). The reason is with a low fuel capacity the Warsaw Pact cadet pilots were less inclined to fly west in an attempt to defect. In 1997 Boeing Aircraft Company purchased 50% of AV, but the collaboration failed and AV is now totally owned by CR Government.

The Camion ZIL-157 was the Soviet workhorse (Fig 8), designed and extensively used for fuelling military vehicles in the field and was also adopted for refueling aircraft on the runway aprons and aviation fuelling points (GARF 2006).

1.5 Soviet Conventional and Nuclear Missiles sites in CZ

By 1991 there was fifty operational-tactical nuclear missiles consisting of SS 21, SS 22, and SS23 with installations at Milovice-Mladá, Mlada Boleslaw, Dobris, Ceske-Budejovice, and Bruntal. The bases had been armed with the Soviet-made S-200 Vega missiles with the range of 265 kilometers and effective altitude of 40,000 metres, demanding heavy amounts of fuels (CR MoD 2006).

In 1983 the CZ government attempted to muster public support for the decision to install these missiles (Zavadil 2006). The local populace, however, realizing that their country had now become a primary target in a future war, did not support the installation and voiced opposition but these installations were completed and missiles installed.

1.6 Decline and reduction of Soviet Forces in the CZ. Intense pressure from the political leaders during the “Cold War” created an increase on military exercises, which placed demands on all echelons of the local military command, corners were cut and mistakes were common. Fuel spillage caused by poor fuel storage and careless handling occurred frequently as speed for refuelling the aircraft replaced efficient fuel management. During these conditions the control technology and interceptor tanks for over spilt PH products were limited.

The Soviet war in Afghanistan was a nine-year war between the Soviet forces and the anti-government Mujahideen insurgents that were fighting to depose Afghanistan's Marxist People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) puppet government (Fisher 1989).

The initial soviet deployment primarily using Soviet reservists of the 40th Army into Afghanistan took place on December 25, 1979 again under the Casus Belli of “Fraternal Assistance” again part of the Brezhnev Doctrine.

The Soviets used Mi-24 Hind helicopters as their primary attack force, supported with fighter bombers, ground troops and Special Forces. (Chants 2005).

The final troop withdrawal took place between May 15, 1988 and February 15, 1989, the Soviet Union announced that all of its troops had departed Afghanistan (Prados 2001),

Over 15,000 Soviet troops were killed and 35,000 wounded from 1979 to 1989, in addition to many hundreds of vehicles and114 Soviet Aircraft and 333 helicopters were lost in Afganistan.The toll in casualties and resources was increasingly felt by the Soviet military (Fisher 1989).

Post-Afghanistan there was drain on qualified Soviet personnel available in CZ resulting in poorly trained fuel units, a reduced equipment scale, and a reduction in quality of leadership. This military overstretch of Soviet capabilities directly contributed to the levels of environmental contamination on AFBs & MTAs in the CZ now the ČR.

In the late 1980s the” Velvet Revolution” swept across Eastern Europe, heralding the fall of the “Iron Curtain” and the collapse of the Soviet communist power. (Fisher 1991).

Between 1988-1991 Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev gradually reduced Soviet forces. On 26 February 1990 CZ and Soviet Ministers signed an agreement on final withdrawal of Soviet Forces.

Withdrawal was completed by July 1991 of all the remaining 73,500 Soviet Troops, 1200 Tanks, 2,500 Armoured Vehicles, 1200 Artillery pieces and 80 Aircraft (Fisher 1991).

A social transformation by the use of capital, technology and knowledge to alter culture and society, with the transfer of ideas and technologies from developed countries to less developed countries such as the former Soviet Satellite countries swiftly took root and began to develop in the CZ. The Warsaw Pact was officially dissolved in July 1991 (Byrne et al 2005).

The fledgling democratic government and a host of commercial organisations were established often clashing with the CZ past political will. Financial opportunity is now available in a nation which is short of national funds.

On the 1st January 1993 the CZ Federation split completing its "Velvet Divorce" that resulted in the creation of two independent countries Slovakia and the Czech Republic (ČR) who joined NATO on 12 March 1999 (NATO 2006).

Chapter 2. Research Aims

To judge the relative success of land remediation techniques and legislation employed in the clean up of two key former Soviet occupied military bases located in the Bohemian region of the ČR.

2.1 Objectives

To conduct an initial Desktop study to locate and appraise all former Soviet Military bases in the ČR and select suitable case study areas.

To define and characterise the occupation force and its attendant operations and determine the Soviet Military behaviours and attitudes towards environmental management.

To assess the nature and extent of contamination against criteria adopted.

To review and evaluate environmental, social and economic impacts resulting from the contamination.

To develop criteria to judge the relative success of remediation techniques employed for site clean up.

To characterise remediation techniques employed at each site and critically review the resulting impacts.

To perform comparative assessment has the success and failure of land remediation at case study sites.

To judge the relative success of techniques employed against the devised criteria of set regulations.

2.2 Research Design and Methodology

Having identified the research topic and completed the preliminary literature the next logical step was to prepare a written proposal for the research, looking at the research process, identifying various approaches, strategies and data collection methods across the continuum of research (Figure 9). Cyper (1996) suggests that the proposal needs to demonstrate that the proposed work is reviewed to determine whether it 1) is it worth researching. 2) lends itself to being researched and can be completed within the appropriate time. 3) can be adequately resourced, and will not be unduly constrained. 4) that the research is suitable qualified to carry out the work.

Complete a literature Review of all available documentation including Military and Civilian Government papers written in Czech ,English and Russian.Translating relavent material was required through the course of the research.

Define a former Soviet base and identify the nature of the occupation force that was situated at the base.

Identify the sources of pollution on each of the former bases, examining the subsequent socio –economic, health, and the environmental impacts.

It will examine reclamation operations in the mitigation of the environmental impacts on former occupied bases and the consequents faced by the ČR Government today.

Identify what land Remediation methods have been employed, and evaluate the technology and techniques adopted at each site of contamination, analysis the advantages and disadvantages of decontamination methods used.

Identify EU and CZ Legislation framework, which have direct bearing on the financing and clean up of the bases. Determining who is responsible and who are the Regulators and enforcement bodies.

Examine the Regional Strategy and local policy in the revitalisation of these areas, options available for commercial use, Military, conservation parks or Educational facilities and the socio- economic impact of the site on future development of the site post reclamation.

2.3 Data Collection Methods

Limited by the location and time, data used in the research is to be collected through using interviews and field observations through permission of various ČR Government Agencies and ČR Commercial organizations related to the land reclamations projects within the ČR.

Latter stages of Methodology including 3 Semi structured interviews, a topical discussion focused on subject issue with the flexibility to restructure questions and remove an element of incorrect translation and maintain a flow of dialogue. (Gubrium et al, 2001)

Create a schedule of interviews in the following order Directors, Government Officers, researchers, authors of books, ex military personnel, all which is anecdotal, and may difficult to translate and have limitations of value (Gubrium et al, 2001). The rationale behind the interviews from former military personnel is to gain a valuable insight into the workings and practises of the AFBs.

Contacted Czech Ministry of Defence, Prague.Department via websites and email.......

Contacted Czech Ministry of Environment , Prague websites and email.......

Determined the actual geographical locations of the Two Soviet Bases and clarified capabilities and Military component on the bases prior to 1991. Arrange field visits to former bases of Milovice-Mladá AFB and Mimoň-Hradčany AFB for preliminary survey of sites for observation. Located within Bohemian Region , which are accessable ,and permission and clearance to visit the prevoiusly miliitary restricted sites can be obtained , developing contacts possible with ČR Environmental Companies.

Both AFBs were key to Soviet Military occupation during the Cold War period ,and now again the AFBs can possibly be used in future military operations against terrorism and shifting NATO forces east towards Ukraine and Russian Federation Borders.

Contact Czech environmental companies responsible for the Czech government funded clean up and remediation operations at these former Soviet bases.

Measure the environmental consequences of the damage as there is a special sensitivity of this area is a result of the fact that it lays in the Northern Bohemian Cretaceous Protected Natural Water Accumulation Area this sandstone region represents a reservoir of drinking water for the ČR.

2.4 Data Analysis

Analysis risk to environment and health, risk compared to Statutory definition and the Czech ABC Guidelines for soils (mg/kg of dry substance) (Appendix 1.) and the Czech ABC Guidelines for Ground water (ug/l) (Appendix 2.).

Evaluate the likely effect of remedition techology employed ,constraints time to remove risk, proposed use of remediated land future.A reliance largely placed on formed opinions of variety of shakeholders ,weighing the compatability and diversion of comment/opinion.

Interpret and comment on the implications of the AFB remediation in the wider context in ČR , theVisegard Accord (V4) Nations and NATO.

Chapter 3. Criteria of sites and drivers to the remediation of the environment.

This section summarises the controls presently in place through legislation and EU guidance, and how the hierarchy of controls attempt to approach the aiding in the reduction of contaminated land within the ČR.

3.1 Framework for approach to Environmental Legislation.

The Czech Constitution was established on 16 December 1992 and ČR became a European Union (EU) member state on 1st May 2004.

The Contaminated Military Sites (CMS) have no legal definition in the ČR legislation, contamination of such a site is subject to the same legal requirements as any other contaminated site in ČR. At present, contaminated sites are covered by the following legal documents

A New Environment Policy of 1995 A New Water Quality Decree of 1992 Act No. 125/1997 Col : The Waste Management Act Act No. 138/1973 Col : The Water Management Act

The Privatisation Act 1992 No. 92/1992 Col initiated the requirement to conduct environmental audits (Eco-Audits) Conditions for the transfer of State property to private persons/companies, initiated as part of the privatisation project, as the ČR state relinquished control of excessive land (MoE 1999).

3.2 Definition of former Soviet military sites

The Soviet military presence involved 73 sites with many types of military installations ranging from large Air Force Bases (AFB), firing ranges, laboratories, to schools and accommodation for families. Of the former soviet sites, the CZ army prior to the Soviet occupation, used 76% and 24% were built by the Soviets. At present 81% of the sites in the ČR have been privatised and the currently 19%, is the responsibility of the ČR MoD.

A Suspected Contaminated Site (SCS) is defined by the nature of the historical operations of the site, although this is not stated in any ČR legislation or Government Guidelines. Air Force Bases (AFB) are the worst contaminated as little or no environmental pressure was applied within the Soviet military to improve practises.

3.3 Registration of Suspected Contaminated Sites (SCS).

In accordance with the Visegrad Accord 1994, composed in relation to soil and groundwater contamination caused by occupying Soviet forces in Eastern Europe, preliminary assessments of the 73 former soviet military bases were performed 1990-1991 by CZ MoE.

An area occupied by Soviet military sites totalled 34, 4000 hectares, (MoD 2000) and of the 73 locations identified of only 12 require little or no remediation.

3.4 Method adopted for the investigation of Contaminated Military Sites (CMS)

"A brownfield site is a site which has had uses in the past that may have resulted in contamination or dereliction that limits its attractiveness for future use".

Investigations were conducted initially by CZ now ČR consulting companies, both state and privately owned, the whole programme was coordinated by the Environmental Damage Assessment Committee (EDAC) established late 1991, which co-ordinates site investigations at the former Soviet sites, the EDAC consists of Representatives from

Ministry of the Environment (MoE) Ministry of Finance Ministry of Defence (MoD) Ministry of Agriculture Ministry of Industry and Trade Representatives from Czech Engineering Companies such as Aquatest, Geotest, Earth Tech (formerly KAP) and Vodni Zdroje, who initially investigated the CMSs.

In 1994 the 393/94Coll was introduced in part to highlight who is responsible for identification, assessment and clean up of contaminated sites.

Each investigation was accompanied by a Soviet Representative whom provided information about activities carried out at different part of each CMS. This was a rare example of Soviet co-operation. In some cases, such as Milovice-Mladá and Mimoň-Hradčany, this was not the first investigation at these sites because severe contamination had been identified earlier (Tylova 1997).

Previous investigations at Milovice-Mladá, by the CZ state geological company, Stavebni Geologie, carried out the first environmental assessment in 1974 after kerosene and diesel appeared in Soviet drinking water supply wells and in the Mlynalice Brook. (Herik et al 1997).

The evaluation and inspection included initial geological and hydrological surveys (Aquifers and water tables) and physical searching for visible evidence of soil and water pollution i.e. discarded oil drums, unidentified waste oils and obnoxious odours.

Inspections were supported by Hydrogeological Conceptual Models, Soil and Groundwater Sampling and Analysis and Risk-based Environmental Assessments

3.5 Administration and Responsibility

The Ministry of Environment (MoE) is the highest environmental authority responsible for the clean up and reclamation of former Soviet military sites, and is also responsible for drafting environmental legislation, developing environmental policy and enforcing environmental law.

The ČR consists of 14 regions (kraje).Each Regional Office has an environmental authority, plus other authorities with responsibility for administrative tasks related to the environment. Municipal authorities have some power to implement environmental law and natural resource management at a local level. The Czech Environmental Inspectorate enforces the environmental laws through its 42 branches. There are separate divisions for water, air, waste management, and forestry and nature protection. The Regional and Municipal Offices have some enforcement responsibilities also, depending upon the size or nature of the issue, as do the River Boards and other environmental bodies. The Czech Environmental Inspectorate is responsible for decisions concerning sites where damage exceeds 30,000 Czech Crowns. The Regional Office issues clean-up orders and the Environmental Damages Department of the MoE controls all clean-up activities.

3.6 Financial Authority

The Government Decree No. 810/97 Coll offers a systematic approach to deal with the responsibility and financing of assessment and clean –up of contamination also it identifies the budget and funding streams. There are 3 main sources of financing for environmental projects in ČR, the State Budget, the State Environmental Fund and the National Property Fund.

The aim of the sources is to finance the remediation of soil and ground water, at present there is a trend towards decreasing the State Budget contribution by releasing the land to Regional Government (RG).

In 2006 a land restitution bill was drafted under which RG should receive the remaining land plots from the state that they lost as a result of nationalisation by December 31, 1949. The bill concerns forests and farming land that was in the management of the former CZ Ministry bodies and organisations and mainly concerns regions in southern and western Bohemia and in eastern Moravia in the areas "where works were done on the military principle." It concerns the forest and farming land within military districts that are owned by the state. RG would only be able to receive it in their ownership if the military districts are abolished. No major spending from the ČR state budget is required. The goal of the bill is to transfer to the RG ownership the remaining part of their historic property that was confiscated from them at the time of oppression and that has not yet been transferred. Under the 1991 law on the transfer of state property, the RG received back their historic property that was in the ownership of the ČR, while the law did not apply to CZ Property. (Skochova 2006) External financial assistance was initially sought from the former Soviet occupiers. The Russian response, was when the Soviet authorities negotiated that the value of buildings and other infrastructure which the withdrawing troops had left was equal to the value of the environmental damages caused, the responsibility for financing clean up operations was left entirely with the CZ (now ČR) government. (MoE 2005) Other than environmental contamination, the Soviet troops had left behind them numerous structures that did not comply to CZ or Soviet building regulations.

Foreign financial support for remediation from the EU and NATO is negligible. (BICC 2004). Previous attempts to obtain funding from PHARE, the European funding programme, were unsuccessful. Initial estimated costs for air bases are 50 million CZK Czech Koruna"Crowns". At present the Monetary unit: 100 CZK koruna (Kc) approx value = 3 EUROS / 4 US$.

Currently the ČR spends approximately 140 million CZK/ 460 million Euros per year on remediation of CMS, and the MoE manages the work. Available funding is not sufficient for full remediation of all CMS. Financing is measured by containment reduction and control measures.

With a limited budget there is still an ambitious 10-year rolling MoE programme which commenced in 2000 which aims to reclaim 73 sites, amounting to 34,4000 hectares of area occupied by the Soviet military, by aiming to assess, prioritise and remove the contaminants. (MoE 2005).

Costs influence the reclamation options and only selective areas to be remediated. Areas left untouched are known as the “Zero option” which receives detailed monitoring until state budget can allocate further funding to MoE. Reclamation methods adopted have caused an additional risk to the environment at some sites, as will be examined later in the research.

3.7 Future liabilities

Funding will have to take into account for post-remediation costs and maintenance Containment/barrier/capping options require monitoring, an obvious financial disadvantage.

The 123/1993 Coll describes and limits to which degree to which the State retains liabilities for past environmental damages.

3.8 Czech Guidelines and Criteria.

In 1992 witnessed the introduction of Czech ABC guidelines for soil, soil gas and ground water quality (Appendix.1 & 2) for the purposes of privatising national property through the National Property Fund, the guideline values are used for clean up, influenced by the Dutch Regulations.

For the environmental damage assessments of the former Soviet military sites following Soviet withdrawal, the Dutch B-level was used as an indicator of pollution levels and as a target value for clean up.

The Dutch soil and ground water guidelines are used as the basis for assessing the need for remediation and developing remediation cost estimates. Also theses guidelines offer a method of measuring the success or failure of remediation technology employed at contaminated sites. The ABC Guideline values are not legally binding

A: Correspond approximately to the natural consistency of the substance in question in natural soil.

B: The contamination can have a negative impact on the health of humans and the environment. Critical B levels are given as intervention levels.

C: Correspond to urgent intervention levels. Further investigation and risk analysis is required as a serious risk to the health of humans and the environment exists.

The actual values set for remediation at a specific site are agreed with the local environmental authorities, as part of the risk assessment approach adopted by the MoE

Decree (No 393/94) defines the Czech ABC values for soil, air and groundwater corresponding to background values. The Decree has two parts:

1) Requirements on ecological audit focused on assessment of contamination (Eco-Audits).

2) Standards, pollution of soil and ground water (Guideline limit values for soil, soil gas, and groundwater).

The aim of the MoE is the full implementation of EU Environmental legislation i.e. Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Directive (IPPC) 96/61 EC is in transition for transposing into ČR Law.

3.9 Risk Assessment Framework

There are 3 key stages:

1) Risk assessment (RA). 2) Options appraisal. 3) Implementation of remediation Strategy.

The concept of risk assessment was first formally introduced into ČR Law as part of the Government Decree No 393/94. It is a process of assessing the hazards and risks associated with a particular site (or a group of sites). Risk assessments were carried out to evaluate the nature and size of risk, to human and the environment.

Decisions to which site/s are first dealt are based on above criteria with the addition factor, of what the land will be used for post remediation and its potential commercial value.

3.9.1 Three Tiers of Risk Assessment (RA)

1) Preliminary RA. 2) Generic Quantitative RA. 3) Detailed Quantitative RA.

The models used by ČR MoE were received from external assistance mainly the EPA (USA), and are increasingly adopted by consulting companies such as Aquatest and Earth Tech (Formerly KAP).

3.10 Assessing Human health risks from soil contaminants

Assessment of the human exposure via the pollutant linkage is compared with toxicological information, taking into account total exposure including other sources, and relative contribution of the pollutant linkage to total exposure. Background contaminants such as uranium from nearby mining plants in Hamr na jezere.

There are two categories:

1) "Significant harm" - death, disease, serious injury, genetic mutation, birth defects or impairment of reproductive function.

2) "Significant possibility of significant harm"- human health effects arising from the intake of or indirect bodily contact to a contaminant.

3.11 Possible Health effects on local populace and remediation workers.

This section identifies possible effects of PH poisoning. Exposure to fuel contamination present in soils is possible through number exposure pathways to Receptor including dermal (physical) direct contact with soil, ingestion of soil, inhalation of soil particulate, and ingestion of contaminated groundwater.

With a multitude of possible variables, any dose-effect relationship will always be wide and variable due to intrinsic factors as each individual is different in size, weight, gender and age.

Two main types 1) Acute exposure 2) Acute poisoning

Two main effects 1) Short term 2) long term

a) Absorption through skin

The permeability of the skin is susceptible to alteration by chemicals. Once chemicals enter the dermis and reach the skin capillaries they are rapidly transferred around the body in the blood stream. Absorption can cause dermatitis- both irritant and allergic.

b) Inhalation

The Respiratory tract provides a very efficient surface for absorption of substances, in the form of vapours, particles or droplets. The quality of chemicals inhaled depends upon frequency and depth of breathing. Inhalation can cause causes irritation to the bronchi, lungs and alveoli.

c) Ingestion of PH/JP in watercourses.

The Gut is an efficient mechanism for absorption of many materials. Any chemicals entering mouth absorbed through mucous membranes-m even if spat out. Chemicals swallowed enter the gastrointestinal tract- then into stomach. Absorption rate and proportion of chemical ingested depends on the movement of gut and rate of passage of foodstuff. The lower part of gut modifies chemicals to less toxic materials. Ingestion can cause vomiting, diarrhoea, coughing, breathlessness and abdominal pain.

d) Long-term effects

The Life expectancy in the ČR: 72 years (men), 79 years (women) (UN). Exposure to PH contamination have direct links with Cancer, reproduction and fertility problems, neurological disorders, respiratory problems, leukaemia, diabetes, madness, toxic poisoning, blood poisoning brain damage (Sources)

There was a lack of population density in CMSs due to the previous nature of the area. Companies involved in the clean up are reluctant to distribute any employee medical information on dose related fatalities/illness, or internal investigations and continual state that there as been no reported illness related to the reclamation programme.

There are no actual, existing records or medical history of the now local populace who are mainly ethnic Roma gypsies who moved into former soviet families housing and the former residents returned to the Russian Federation with all medical documentation.

Chapter 4. Sources and nature of existing contamination in the ČR.

4.1 Nature of contamination

Diffuse pollution is derived from current and past land use and results from release of a variety of substances in many different situations. These are generally dispersed and diverse in nature. Individually the sources may be small, but their collective impact can be damaging.

Diffuse water pollution can have significant effects on wildlife and use of water. These effects include: 1. Groundwater and surface water contamination and the subsequent loss, or need for treatment, of drinking water resources. The Groundwater’s are vulnerable from, and affected by, leaching of pollutants from the land surface and from areas of the contaminated sites, while surface waters are affected by rainfall that washes over and off the land (run-off). Rivers can also be influenced by the contribution to their flow that comes through springs and seepages from groundwater. Where the groundwater connection with surface waters is high, pollution can pass from one to affect the other. 2. Chemical and microbiological contamination of the water supplies have resulted in the smothering of fish spawning gravels, nutrient enrichment and eutrophication, oxygen depletion, and increase toxicity to plant and animal life. 3. Run-off has increased as have built more roads, runways and houses, particularly where we have degraded the natural permeability of the landscape and reduced its capacity to retain water.

4.2 Fuels.

Liquid geologically-extracted hydrocarbons are referred to as petroleum (literally "rock oil") or mineral oil. The most widespread contamination encountered in the ground water and rock environment during investigations at former Soviet military sites is Petroleum Hydrocarbon (PH) contamination. (Kerosene, diesel, and Jet Propulsion (JP) Avtur fuel), chlorinated hydrocarbons (CHC) and Poly-Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) have also been reported. PAH are carcogenic and can produce respiratory illness breathing difficulties.

4.2.1 Soviet Military fuels.

Aviation fuels are classified into 2 groups 1) Aviation gasoline's for reciprocating piston engines 2) Aviation turbine fuels (ATF) for turbo-prop and turbo-jet engines. (A colourless flammable hydrocarbon liquid)(Harrison 2000).

The Short-term hazards of JP are the more volatile and water-soluble compounds (such as benzene and toluene) as a potential acute toxicity to aquatic life especially in confined areas and natural reservoirs (Smith 2001). The PH in a semi –volatile element leach into Ground Water Table (GWT) (Fig 11). Continual PH spillage from activities on the AFBs is absorbed and penetrates deep into the surrounding ground soil, saturating the area over a 23-year period of years creating contaminated soil, which is also releasing vapours unabated into the atmosphere. PH present in soil for a considerable length of time leach’s the definition is “percolate liquid through the soil”

4.3 Pesticides and other chemicals used for maintenance of the bases

Pollution created by poor storage and bad handling of pesticides (Organochlorine), and chemical run-off to clear runway aprons, parades squares, vehicle laagers, railway and road networks which leaches from the soil in treated areas into soil and the GWT. DDT is a worldwide banned substance as affected the native Hawk population. Bad management of Paints, thinners, wood preservatives for fencing and buildings also contributed to the net pollution. 4.4 Solvents for dry cleaning of military uniforms

At Kursivody, Ralsko MTA, a dry cleaning and laundry site for military uniforms as caused serious pollution problems (Kvapil 2005). Due to the depth of the pollution reached, which is actually beneath the Ground Water Table (GWT), it is potentially a major contributor to the pollution of the natural reservoir of Northern Bohemia.

4.5 Uranium Mining at Ralsko

The Ralsko region is poor on raw materials, Uranium was brutally mined at Hamr na jezere, the primitive extraction involved series ground level boreholes pumping 4 million litres of sulphuric acid and 300,000 litres of Nitric acid in the ground, 180 m3 litres groundwater contaminated and 4.8 million tonnes of contaminants (Bubenikova 2006). Mining and its processing have had a negative effect on the environment, and the River Ploucinice is contaminated.

Measuring and the monitoring the effects of the mining is difficult as background radiation and the existing contamination of land and buildings used for suspected nuclear weapons storage for the MIG 23M Fighter Bombers based at Mimoň-Hradčany AFB.

4.6 Landmine Problems and Mine clearance action. All sites were contaminated with mines and Unexploded ordnance (UXO) left by Soviet military. Milovice-Mladá site was cleared by June 2000. Clearance of the Mimoň-Hradčany site (250 sq km) was first scheduled for completion in 2001, but with the discovery of an additional contaminated area of 3,500 hectares, the completion date was extended to the end of 2003. In March 2003, the MoD announced that clearance of the original areas of contamination had been completed. It said an area of 88,439,349 square meters had been cleared, and “6,628 pieces of engineering ammunition and ammunition elements were found and destroyed,” including antipersonnel mines. ČR MoD reported that in the first half of 2002 more than 13,000 items of UXO and mines were discovered and destroyed at Mimoň-Hradčany. December 2002 reports 304,743 UXO destroyed at Mimoň-Hradčany (Monitor 2002). Regarding the newly discovered contaminated area at Mimoň-Hradčany, clearance of another area of some 3,500 hectares is now taking place.” (Macha 2003). In 2002, 5,949 mines, hand grenades and projectiles, and over 26,000 items of UXO were found and destroyed, metal splinters are present in the soil. Metal fragments from grenades and shell splinters mixed with in soil at MTAs. Heavy Metals (lead, zinc, chromium and cadmium) and chemical contamination from discarded ammunition UXB dumps and explosives buried, former minefields for used as Security of the sites.

4.7 Heavy metals

Heavy metals (lead, zinc, chromium and cadmium) are a major contaminant, which is encountered at former military sites (Umweltbundesamt 1997). The toxic Heavy Metals can cause blood poisoning, brain damage, respiratory conditions, and lung infections even fatalities.

Chapter 5. Reclamation and Clean up technologies Options.

5.1 Adopting the site remediation and risk avoidance principles

a) Remove or destroy the contaminants. b) Modify the contaminants to reduce toxicity/mobility (reduce risk of migration.) c) Isolate the contaminants

5.2 Process methods providing a scientific platform

a) Physical Soil vapour extraction / Particle separation / Incinerator b) Engineering Capping / landfilling / Barriers c) Biological Ex situ (composting) / In situ (Bio injection) d) Thermal Desorption.

5.3      Soil Reclamation Options Available.

1. Soil Vapour Extraction (SVE) for Bioventing soil contaminated with PH and CHC. Physical Ventilation using forced air, removes volatiles, fuels and solvents. (In situ). Disadvantages are soil permeability and the temperature of ground water will influence performance (Machackova et al 2005).

2. Incineration of soil contaminated with PH. Expensive and rarely adopted only used for highly harmful substances. (In-situ / ex-situ).

Definition of Incineration

“Incineration is the oxidative degradation of organic matter, at elevated temperature, to form products that are harmless or are capable of purification and treatment to render them harmless.”

3. Physical particulate separation process (in situ/ex situ) of excavation of soil, screening, separation and soil washing, for granular or coarse-grained material, this process is highly effective for a wide range of contaminants (oils, heavy metals, cyanide). Soil washing works on the principle that contamination forms a surface coating on particles (Tylova 1997).

Soils of different particle sizes are separated before treatment using a variety of processes such as high pressure washing, attrition scrubbing, fines flocculation and centrifuge. Granular material, once treated, can be processed and eventually re-used on site.

As a result, only a relatively small amount of fine grained heavily concentrated waste "cake" requires removal off-site disposal in landfill site, reducing the cost of imported required backfill, and has the additional environmental advantage of reducing vehicle movements.

4. Bio injection in-situ (biological) direct injection of nutrients and microbes treats soil and ground water, via boreholes suitable for PH and CHC. Effected by soil permeability, contamination depth, and as a self-degradation potential. Timescale contaminant and soil dependent 3-9 months. Continual monitoring required up to 6-7 years. Supported by Airsparging (AS) in situ (fig 12), the venting of soil contaminated with PH and CHC. And a natural bioremediation of VOC content in soil.

5. Thermal Desorption, the soil is heated in a kiln to 450C to remove mid boiling point hydrocarbons with a secondary combustion at 1000C. The process is suitable for soils contaminated with fuels/PH and many residues found in explosives. But not suitable for volatiles, mercury or high boiling point contaminants.

6. The controlled disposal of contaminated soil in landfill.

7. In-situ encapsulation/capping of a contaminated area. Not suitable for mobile contaminants, but reduces landfill costs and minimises remediation work.

Chapter 6. Remediation Strategies adopted for the Contaminated Military Sites.

6.1 Prioritising of CM Sites.

In principle, emergency situations are always addressed first by the MoE contractors, with source removal if possible such as PH ruptured fuel tanks or leaking piping. The remedial action is dependent on the results of risk assessments considering both the hydro-geological setting of contaminated areas and potential ground water receptors such as ground water resources and wells.

The AFBs originally prioritised for clean up and remediation were selected based upon the criteria of vicinity of contaminated areas to potential receptor considering the hydrogeological location and by adopting alternative methods and current technology available, bearing in mind the cost of the actual remediation operation (Myrttinen 2003). Remedial action was discontinued at locations that were found to pose no risk.

6.2 Factors influencing remedial option adopted

1. Costs are the most dominant factor, contracts for remediation are awarded from tenders (bids), generally to ČR Environmental consultants and remediation companies.

2. The effectiveness of the remedial option, the amount level of concentration of contaminated soil on site.

3. Logistics required and site location, the proximity to urban areas, waterways and agriculture. Effects on trees, grasslands, habitats, animals, etc

4. Nature of the soil/land contamination, water pollution and air pollution.

Whilst ensuring steps are to be taken to restore and improve the physical characteristics of the sites, to a stage the sites are suitable for commercial purposes, education, military usage or even nature conservation. And finally the length in time in which remediation takes place, although this is not a major constraint in the ČR as a majority of the sites have been neglected for so long there is no urgency unless the risk assessment identifies enormous environmental impacts i.e. contamination of the water courses.

6.3 Health and Safety

There are no specific health and safety regulations at a ČR national or local level for site investigation and remediation. Although several contracted companies are developing internal health and safety procedures. At the former military bases there is little evidence EU H&S legislation as been adopted or put into practise.

Live ammunition is a problem and many site investigations have taken special precautions for the inspection teams, such as using geophysical methods to detect buried objects and ammunition.

Chapter 7. Results and Analysis.

The literature Reviews exposed the sheer scale of the environmental pollution existing in the ČR directly related to the actions of the occupying Soviet armed forces. The enormous amount of research required to study the ČR directed focus on the environmentally damaged areas located in the former Soviet Airforce Bases (AFB) and Military Training Areas (MTA) in the Ralsko, Mimoň-Hradčany region north of Prague and Milovice-Mladá, NW of Prague, Bohemia, ČR.

7.1 Field study Terenni Pruzkum of Milovice-Mladá.

This site was formerly the Headquarters (HQ) of the 131st Combined Air Division of the Soviet Air Force, Voenno Vozdushnye Sily (VVS). Also known as Bozi Dar located near Nymburk, 50km North east of Prague, Central Bohemia.

At present the overall aesthetic quality of the AFB in part is poor, mainly a derelict waste ground that is predominately a rough grass area, with bald patches and piles of building rubble covered with natural vegetation, the habitat appears deceptively rich with a variety of flora and fauna. The AFB is located 2 Km away from the nearest residence buildings and 10 km from sources of drinking water consumed by more than 1million inhabitants of Prague. And situated 3 Km from the main arterial road network running east to Prague.

There is a high quality concrete runway 15x2450m with two concrete areas in each end of the strip (40x300m). There is also another service runway with a 100m width

The close proximity of the AFB to the countryside and forestry in the area, and the deliberate lack of urbanisation.

7.1.1 Nature and extent of the contamination

Examining the site characteristics of Milovice-Mladá and surrounding environment as shown severe water contamination at this site which is mainly caused by leaking underground fuel tanks releasing plumes of PH, lubricating oils, PAHs and CHC. An oil film was visible on nearby Mlynařice Brook, ČR authorities began monitoring the site prior to the soviets departure. (Umwelt 1997). The ground water remediation programme began in 1992 with emergency clean –up pumping following severe contamination of the Mlynařice Brook that flows into the Elbe.

The study of Milovice-Mladá indicated more extreme problems due to the lack of resources and negligent behaviour. Pumps used for fuels were originally designed as water hoses for fire engines, and regularly sprang leaks. Also inattentive guards often allowed fuel tanks to overflow, coupled with improper handling of PH products. When a Camion ZIL-157 broke down due to lack of spare parts, the local fire engines were forcibly requisitioned by the Soviet military and basically converted into primitive refuelling vehicles ( CR MoD 2005).

Figure 17. Picture of abandoned derelict buildings at Milovice. Source : Cameron Mlada Dnes Fronta Newspaper, 2005. Other than environmental contamination, the Soviet had left behind them numerous structures, which did not comply, to Czech or Soviet building regulations.

After the Soviet departure PH contamination in the soil by fuel generated from the military operations was confirmed. A private waste management company PROEKO was awarded the contract to clean up the site, it installed a mobile hazardous waste incinerator as the proposed remediation technique nearby at Lysá nad Labem to tackle the oil-contaminated soil. Central or Local Government never permitted the incinerator.

During 1990-94 PROEKO concentrated the waste and contaminated soil in an unprotected area, without any security. And subsequently exacerbated the problem by importing approximately 2,000 tonnes of illegal hazardous waste. The hazardous waste stockpile is situated in the open air on the edge of the forest north of Milovice-Mladá, 6,5 kilometres in a beeline from the Elbe (Labem) River and 2 kilometres from Mlynařice brook, which enters the Elbe under Lysá nad Labem.

PROEKO was not permitted to store hazardous waste but despite the reported incidents of illegal storage, the estimated disposal costs were still covered by the National Property Fund.

In 1994, PROEKO transformed to ALISA (with no change of management), which is now liquidated. ALISA left behind 428 disintegrating barrels of toxic wastes containing PCBs, PCEs, DDT, cyanide and nearly 1000 cubic meters of contaminated soil were ‘dumped’ rather than stored.’ (Bubenikova 2006). Accessible, disintegrating barrels and contaminated soils are gradually contaminating the surrounding environment.

Analysis of soil samples in and around the base revealed PCB contamination to the extent of 95,000 mg/kg (parts per million). The ČR PCB limit for industrial areas is 30 mg/kg. DDT levels at 1630 mg/kg were 163 times greater than permissible levels. (Bubenikova 2006).

There were 5800 kg of PCBs and 40 g of PCDD/Fs in total in the stored wastes.7 PCBs were in the wastes at levels ranging between 2.1- 730,000 mg/kg.

The production of PCBs was banned in the ČR (then CZ) in 1984, and usage of DDT has been banned since 1978 (Marcanikova 2006).

Czech Environmental Pressure Group, the Civic Association Lysin and Arnika Association placed Corruption accusations Municipal and state organizations were not prepared to resolve the situation and initially only placed one military sentry on the site.

Part of the waste containing PCBs and part of other wastes containing DDT was burnt in the hazardous waste incinerator located at northern border of Lysá nad Labem on the hill, Šibák, at an altitude of about 227 metres, 4 kilometres north of the Elbe riverbank and 600 metres from the nearest residential property in Lysá. Wastes produced by the incinerator have been deposited in a nearby former deep mine.

The corruption endemic to the Czech privatisation scheme controlled by the National Property Fund, the complexity of the problem began in 1990, when the newly "free" CZ started to take stock of the legacy inherited from its communist past. The plan was that the National Property Fund, after obtaining assessments of how much the remediation would cost, would reimburse the purchaser for cleaning up.

The unique scheme meant more immediate solutions, but led to some of the most abominable abuses experienced by any of the Post-Soviet states. As demonstrated by PROEKO-ALISA management what had shown disregard for public safety and corporate accountability and later simply disappeared unpunished and the site remediation failed.

The strict targets for decontamination of the maintenance and restoration facilities are not due to future site use (non-sensitive uses planned, such as depots and workshops) but due to hydrogeological and hydrological vulnerability of the site, namely the River Elbe

At present theses targets will not be achieved until 2008-2012 due to the previous mis-management and conservation abuse by PROEKO between 1991 and 1994.

The remediation program presently at Milovice-Mladá now uses soil venting and natural bioremediation to reduce PH content in the soil. It is a slow process due to heavy financial constraints. The Lead Pb in the soil is treated off-site by lime stabilization.

7.1.2 Future uses of Milovice-Mladá.

The reopening of the AFB fully for the Military purposes or encouraging commercial interest is a primary interest of RG, by converting the AFB, and regenerating new income by integrating them into local economy, in an attempt to reduce economic impact of sudden base closures in 1991. At present a limited commercial airport service exists providing a customs and pass control on an ad hoc basis for international air transportation, with meteorological services available for the flight crew and a refuelling of the aeroplanes. The Cargo flights make up the main part of international flights. Customer base is Škoda, Faurecia, and Seat. Main exports are manufactured goods, beer, and machinery, cars and transport equipment. It is also currently used as a Military Training Area MTA to host Military Exercises as part of the ČR Government commitment to NATO. The MTA was utilised for Exercise Protector 2005 and 2006 for US 82nd Airborne Division and 504th Parachute Infantry Regiment.

NATO forces have conducted live fire exercises on the site, which will ultimately contribute to the disturbance of wild life, the damage to flora and fauna, and increased the likelihood of further environmental damage as heavy military equipment, aircraft and vehicles are deployed on the MTA

It was used in 1998 as a Hollywood Film location for “Harts War” employing local companies and the local populace as extras and set builders.

Mersk Logistics are considering Milovice as the central European logistical terminal for commercial movement of goods into Eastern Europe and the Belgium University of Leevans wish to open a university campus at Milovice, (Radio Prague 2005), with sports facilities open to the general public. Including the development of the Bohemian Educational and Recreational Park with an ecologically designed visitors centre encompassing a possible science pavilion for educational purposes.

To develop tourism in the area, Liberec Zoo wish to create a breading station in Milovice for endangered species such as African White Rhino Sanctuary, a European species such as Bison would be more suitable to re-introduce into region (Postolka 1998).

7.2 Field study Terenni Pruzkum of Mimoň-Hradčany.

Mimoň-Hradčany MTA and AFB is a 250sqkm site located 50º39N 14º44E (Letecka 2005). The natural gradient slopes north from the AFB towards the Ploucnice River .The area is over shadowed by Mt Ralsko (696 ft) The special sensitivity of this area is a result of the fact that it lays in the Northern Bohemian Cretaceous Protected Natural Water Accumulation Area this sandstone region represents a reservoir of drinking water for the CR.

The area as a high permeability sandstone base contain basalt mineral with natural Peat bogs and 72% of the area is well preserved woodland and heather, with an abundance of Oak Trees Quercus robur, Pine Trees Pinus uncinate, and Silver Birch Trees Betula pendula, a natural pioneer species (a source of timber for the construction industry). And the” Red Hill” Reservoir at Straz pod Ralskem used by occupying troops as natural water source which dominates the north of the area.

In parts of the MTA the natural layers of soil have mixed together under the pressure of heavy wheeled (Camion Zil-157) and mechanical vehicles such as the T-80 Main Battle Tank (MBT), and BMP -2 during regular military training exercises. This as resulted in the erosion of topsoil and sub surface soil, and an increase in Loess, soil particles transmitted by wind.

There is no agriculture on the former AFB, and there is no pressure to create more agricultural or arable land. The EU actively discourage agriculture produce from ČR due agricultural surplus within the EU, therefore EU grants provide incentives for the ČR to produce forestry and plants for biomass.

Forest and recreation parks are major benefactors of reclamation land in ČR .The whole habitat of the Ralsko MTA site is now protected by a local by-law Zemedelsltvi and the Coll Sbirka 251/2001.

The established Standard of Practise (SOP) developed in the ČR through methodology and research over the years of reclamation has determine that the ratio of juvenile trees planted is 95% native trees such as the Oak Tree Quercus robur, and an optimal 5% non native trees such as the Douglas fir Tree Pseudotsuga menziesii.

The local wildlife is affected due to the existing contamination and increased illegal fly tipping on the sites and at present nature conservation is the least of the contractor’s priorities.

The Wild boar has no natural predators in the area. The Boar live in groups called sounders which can contain 20-50 animals that continually forage, damaging trees, tearing roots, eating cranberries, blueberries, insects and even young deer.

The abandon buildings and infrastructure left behind were vandalised and the perimeter fencing and railway tracks were sold as scrap metal to satisfy the demands for Chinas booming construction industry. Damage to woodland occurred as firewood and construction timber was collected, as an alternative source of income for local populace whose income was affected at bases closure.

Only 750 inhabitants live in the whole area of the Ralsko MTA, averaging only 3 inhabitants per km sq, although the Roma gypsy population are now beginning to exploit the area due to the lack of police presence. The danger the Roma gypsy place them selves under is the lack of employment protection and H&S as they become cheap labour for the site developers and roam the area searching for alternative sources of income unaware of the contamination present. 7.2.1 Nature and extent of the contamination A huge environmental liability in form of soil and groundwater pollution with PH (JP, diesel oil, gasoline and fuel oil) is present at the site.

The leakage of piping and poorly insulated high volume tanks, becoming rusty during the occupation resulted in perforated tanks causing serious pollution of ground water with kerosene at the water table, within the vadose zone pollution and traces of dissolved PH in the groundwater.

As the volume of the military aircraft increased, the Soviet forces brought in hundreds of large transportable fuel storage tanks (Fig 27). At present there is 200 above-ground fuel tanks contaminated with diesel fuel and lubricating oil. At this base, estimated there is up to 7,150 tonnes of PH in the soil. And more than a tonne of chlorinated hydrocarbons have dissolved in the ground water.

As with all former AFBs in ČR the location is situated away from urban areas to discourage fraternisation between the Soviet military and the local populace.

Ten hectares of soil is contaminated by PH from an abandoned fuel depot, situated in the vicinity of the former Railway terminal, where PH products were transferred from tank wagons to 6 underground storage tanks built by the CZ Airforce (Figure 30).

The areas shaded in red (Fig 31 & 32) display the total plume delineation of PH contamination. In 2000 there was 22 Hectares contaminated soil and 6 Hectares contaminated groundwater, a total of 28 Hectare contaminated by PH.

The fuelling tanks on the runway apron ruptured due to poor maintenance and large amounts of PH contaminated surrounding subsurface soil and groundwater (Fig 33).

7.2.3 Remediation proposals and techniques adopted at site.

The clean up of Mimoň-Hradčany is the most important long-term project covered from the budget of ČR MoE. In 1997 the tender was won by KAP (Earth Tech) for the completion of initial remediation by 2008.The remedial activities are running continuously from 1993 under supervision of the KAP, now Earth Tech (CZ) Ltd.

The unexpected depth of the pollution caused initial underestimation of the pollution, which resulted in partly insufficient clean up technology being initially adopted. The thickness of the free phase PH layer on the ground water surface was 8 metres in 2003. The remediation is now expected to continue into 2012.

A combination of several clean-up technologies is used for the site decontamination (Masak et al., 1999). Presently this is the world’s largest “in situ” bioremediation project. The remediation has two key stages, the first stage involves the recovery of free oil phase, and this is the pre absorption into soil of the PH using vacuum and pumping methods. The main aim is the maximum removal of free oil phases, and volatile compounds are removed from unsaturation zone by venting.

The second key stage is crucial for the in-situ Aerobic biodegradation is a sufficient supply of oxygen, by enhancing the conditions for biodegradation, 90% of PH contamination is estimated to be reduced within 2 years.

Two systems are used for oxygen delivery, Soil Vapour Extraction (SVE) and Air Sparging (AS). (Figure 36) Ambient air is used as an oxygen carrier. SVE is effective only in the upper layers of the unsaturated zone, for aeration of deeper layers and groundwater AS is used. Two types of piping used, one for oxygen delivery and the other for nutrient application delivery both are continually monitored. Each is individually tagged and numbered.

The remedial system is widened by nutrient amendment (N, P) for full support of indigenous aerobic micro-organisms (Rosenberg and Ron, 1996). Microbial screening had shown that simulations of indigenous aerobic bacteria Comamonas acidovorans naturally present in the soils were actively mineralising PH. (Cejkova et al, 1997).

Supported by oxygenation of soil and groundwater (Venting & AS) as the soil as a naturally very low nutrient content, demanding the periodic application of nutrients N, P, K and oxygen delivery

There is a series of monitoring boreholes on the AFB for measuring soil and groundwater temperature and local effects of temperature change. Each is individually tagged and numbered, and corresponds with borehole overviews. (Appendix 3& 4).

There are 3 factors: 1. Change in air temperature through out the course of the year. 2. Forced heat through remediation process released to air environment. 3. Temperature released is directly related to biodegradation process.

Plants are used as an indicator species to determine the nature of the pollutant or active changes in soil after land reclamation. Unfamiliar plant life and vegetation grow due to the temperature change to soil, and quality of soil (ph levels), which have resulted in the destruction of a species, once common to area the Blue Alpine Daisy Aster alpinus, also the remediation technology has resulted in water hardness and an increased humidity in the groundwaters.

The natural gradient of the area slopes from the AFB down to the Ploucnice River, this gradient causes the PH contamination under the former MIG hangers.

This demanded that drilling into the hardened concrete flooring designed to absorb excessive heat from the jet engines and to survive a direct hit from NATO missiles and artillery, which ultimately entailed in extra cost and investment (Fig 40).

At present 18 Ha are under operation, 8 Ha have been finished, 2 Ha projected to be finished Jan 2007. A total of 2,712 tons of PH and CHC removed. Decontamination will continue to 2012, expected costs 12 million Euros. The whole project is financed by ČR State Budget and is controlled by the MoE.

Chapter 8. Discussion

The overall aim of this research was to judge the relative success of land remediation techniques and legislation employed in the clean up of two key former Soviet occupied military bases located in the Bohemian region of the ČR. With the following objectives: To conduct an initial Desktop study to locate and appraise all former Soviet Military bases in the ČR and select suitable case study areas.

To define and characterise the occupation force and its attendant operations and determine the Soviet Military behaviours and attitudes towards environmental management.

To assess the nature and extent of contamination against criteria adopted.

To review and evaluate environmental, social and economic impacts resulting from the contamination.

To develop criteria to judge the relative success of remediation techniques employed for site clean up.

To characterise remediation techniques employed at each site and critically review the resulting impacts. Limitations of studies due to the sheer scale of the subject, which become apparent during the initial Critical Review option to concentrate on two keys AFB. Time scale available and the amount of documentation in English, Czech and Russian dictated concentrated effort on two key AFBs.

The rational for the sites chosen for the research were selected by geographical location of the sites both are located in Northern Bohemia, the logistics, access and transport to the sites via road net works, the time availability of only 4 months in the CR, and a heavy reliance on Usti University to provide interpreters, as there is lack of English speakers outside Prague, and the relationship the University has with the remediation companies Constraints of language, initially a barrier . The sensitive nature of the research especially in latter stages when the USA voiced interest in relocating military forces from Germany to the CR. Assessment of the remediation techniques adopted in Milovice-Mladá AFB. An absolute environmental disaster. Financially badly managed by RG and ČR central governments from the onset, highlighted the vulnerability of the fledgling democrat government, ruthless exploitation of an inadequate system and total exploitation of the environment. The main failings were the lack of checks and balances, which allowed criminals to exploit the system. It was a serious lesson learnt.

The Incineration option was never regulated and too much trust was placed on the remediation companies.

An assessment of the remediation techniques adopted in Mimoň-Hradčany AFB. A continual success, compared to Milovice , it is well coordinated, planned and managed by Earth Tech a professional remediation company with good track record and history for land remediation. Adopting a combination of remediation techniques and capable of evaluation of the biogradability of both the aerobic and anaerobic process . Good established practises such as muffles for generators and pumping equipment. Noisy plant is sealed to reduce complaints from illegal residents on the AFB.

Improving the aesthetic quality of the AFBS, by the erection of high barriers supported by existing trees to screen the operation. With minimum interference of existing species of flora and fauna. Reducing the soil permutation and contamination runoff becoming involved in habitat creation.

Interview Responses.

Remediation Companies were keen to show their expertise and I was often invited on field studies at the locations, and continually discussed exporting the remediation skills to other similar sites. Provided information share introduced Earth Tech to the EU Journal, which places advertisement on both on the Internet on the journal web pages and an actual hardcopy Journal, and how to receive a monthly publication of the Journal. This improved the relationship with remediation companies (Appendix 7). On reflection my relationship with former CZ military personnel who had served on the AFB was enjoyable, mainly due to my own military service in the British Army. These connections accepted by retired military personnel able to speck frankly about their experiences and the routine and military practises which occurred on theses AFB. Through these brief assessments part of my objectives were achieved

Chapter 9. Conclusion and further research

The relative success of reducing the environmental impacts of Mimon Hradcany AFB can be transferred to the Milovice AFB and the research and technology adopted can be extended into other former Soviet occupied countries, via the Visgard Accord or NATO This research would be potentially beneficial, for the advance of knowledge associated to PH contamination, as the information is transferable, the subject demands further investigation and opportunity for further research at MSC and PhD levels. The expertise gained can be extended into Afghanistan, Bagram AFB in Kabul and within the Baltic States and even the Russian Federation. Elements of the research can be submitted to NATO for Publication. Also to US Airforce in reference to bases closure in Germany. Historically military forces by nature are a destructive organisation, which can and will, if unmanaged pollute the local environment without much consideration to the host nation or the occupied nation. The phrase “to the victors the spoils” as a new meaning.

This type of action is no means exclusive to former Warsaw Pact forces retreating Iraqi forces in Shaibah airfield in 2002, a former 1950s RAF bases in Southern Iraq had neglected large tracts of land and created extensive building damage.

During the“Cold War”, RAF Upper Heyford served as a base for United States Air Force (USAF) Strategic Air Command (SAC) and strategic bombers but on the 30th September 1994 the base was returned to the UK. Unfortunately, it is now largely a ghost town with buildings long abandoned and cordoned off to the public. The runways are now used as a giant parking lot for a car manufacturer for pre-showroom models. Other functions include Police driver training. It may become an industrial Park. (Banbury Guardian newspaper 2006).

In 1992 the USAF withdrawn from RAF Woodbridge a 69 hectare site situated in the county of Suffolk, England . In May 2006, the MoD UK invested £82 million in redevelopment project at Woodbridge Airfield for 23 Engineer Regiment (16 Air Assault Bde) accommodation, training, medical, sport, leisure, and vehicle maintenance facilities. Ever since the falling out between the USA and Germany over national policy concerning the Iraq Invasion in 2002, the US troops relocating from Germany to Eastern Europe. The ČR government has expressed serious political interest in hosting US Military bases, as US military Policy shifts away military presence in West Europe and permanently relocating bases to the former communist bloc Eastern Europe. The United States Undersecretary of State Marc Grossman and Undersecretary of Defence Doug Feith held political talks with NATO allies including the ČR about the redeployment of its troops and bases in East Europe (White 2006). The review is expected to result in thousands of troops being transferred from bases in Germany to new ones closer to potential trouble spots. The details of when and how have remained unclear, but the day when US troops could may be drawing near. Both Milovice and Mimon-Hradcany have the size and the potential capacity to host operational US military force airforces. Despite a good working relationship between Russia and NATO expansion eastwards remains highly unpopular in Russia (Cornwell 2006). Russia's defence minister Sergei Ivanov stated Russia will not tolerate the "encroachment" of NATO military infrastructure on Russia's borders. (BBC 2006). But Russia has little scope for response for they are largely unpopular in the former satellite states and are responsible for vast tract of environmental damage. The UK as expressed interest in developing a joint Czech-UK RAF Fighter Interceptor unit at Caslav air base, East of Prague. (Bennett 2003) The ČR military have leased 14 Saab “Gripen” multirole fighter aircraft with Raytheon AIM-9M8/9 Sidewinder short-range air-to-air missile and have adopted a lessons learnt policy regarding aviation fuel management during joint exercises with the Royal Air Force (RAF) (Kominek 2006).

The proposed US anti-missile base may be located in the site where military bases had existed in the past with two localities envisioned, (Cameron 2006).

The bases near the Central Bohemian town of Dobris equipped with bunkers for surface-to-air missiles for national anti-aircraft defence , closed in the mid-1990s have a clear advantage of a deserted site still belonging to the ČR military The decision on whether a US anti-missile base will be built in the ČR is to be made in early 2007.

The examples from Germany have shown that US bases provide well-paid jobs for local residents and that nearby towns and villages virtually "live off" the bases. Other candidates for hosting the bases are Poland and Hungary.

The withdrawal of the Soviet Troops in 1992 signalled a massive shift of ideologies from a communist State to private capitalist ventures as part of the Czech maturity process on the road to democracy, free market trade and more importantly recognition by the EU. The ČR is a keen economic partner willing to embrace capitalism, democracy and its environmental responsibilities of the burdens of its turmoil past. The ČR MoE provides research grants into remediation technologies following competitive bidding. The widespread involvement of a number of environmental consulting companies in the remediation of CMS provides a good forum for research. Developing bioremediation technologies (Both in-situ and ex-situ treatment) and active research into decontaminating heavily fissured rock environments. Companies, University Site remediation is generally commercially driven, rarely promoted for environmental reasons and remediation will attract international companies in search of lucrative CR government contracts Multi national corporations with branches worldwide form an increasingly important part of a modern capitalist society (Haralambo et al 2000), the CR Governments “freedom of action” will in the future be limited by theses companies, Earth Tech is owned by the US Tyco International In the future there is an extreme problem of the Uranium material /process at Hamr na Jezere, the Solvent pollution at Kurivody and PH combining and percolating through the high porous absorption sandstone into the drinking water reservoir, which will affect a substantial part of Northern Bohemia.