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India's Background & Contributions to Climate Change
The Indian subcontinent was home to one of the earliest and largest ancient civilizations, the Indus Valley Civilization, which began flourishing around 3000 BC and was located in present-day Pakistan, Kashmir, and northwestern India. Additionally, India has a long history of conquest and colonialism, including the Muslim conquests of 13th to 16th centuries. European powers began establishing footholds in India during the 16th century, and by the 19th century Great Britain held dominant political power. Nonviolent resistance to British rule brought about Indian independence in 1947, which was quickly followed by partition into the modern states of India and Pakistan.[Note 1]
India has a land area of almost 3 million square kilometers, making it slightly more than one-third the size of the United States, and a coastline of roughly 7,000 km. In 2000, 86% of India’s freshwater withdrawal was used for agriculture, and in 2003 it had 622,860 square kilometers of irrigated land. As of 2005, 48.83% of India was arable, and 2.8% of the land was used for permanent crops.
India’s climate varies from a tropical monsoon climate in the south, to temperate regions in the north. The Himalayas act as barrier to moisture coming off of the Indian Ocean, resulting in astonishing rainforests abutting the very dry Tibetan plateau. As a result of monsoonal rains, India experiences droughts, severe thunderstorms, and flash floods (which can be widespread and destructive).
India also has a large amount of natural resources. They possess the world’s fourth largest coal reserves, as well as natural gas, petroleum, and various ores and minerals. In 1999, they had approximately 1,907.8 cubic kilometers of renewable freshwater resources, which is equivalent to slightly less than Lake Huron and Lake Erie combined.
In 2012, the estimated population was roughly 1.2 billion people, or almost 4 times the population of the United States. China is the only more populous country. The Indian capital, New Dehli, has almost 22 million people, followed by Mumbai with almost 20 million.
The World Bank estimated that in 2005, 41.6% of India’s population lived on less than $1.25 (US dollars) a day, which is the United Nations designated worldwide poverty line. However, this decreased to 32.7% (approximately 400 million people) by 2010. India’s poverty rate is projected to drop to 22% by 2015. Nevertheless, in 2010 96.3% of the population (approximately 1.17 billion people) lived on less than $5.00 a day. The CIA Fact Sheet on India states that “Despite pressing problems such as significant overpopulation, environmental degradation, extensive poverty, and widespread corruption, rapid economic development is fueling India's rise on the world stage.” [Note 2]
“Economic liberalization, including industrial deregulation, privatization of state-owned enterprises, and reduced controls on foreign trade and investment, began in the early 1990s and has served to accelerate the country's growth, which has averaged more than 7% per year since 1997.”
India’s GDP has been increasing rapidly over the past two decades. The estimated real growth rate was 5.9% in 2009, 10.1% in 2010, and 6.8% in 2011. Between 2009 and 2011, India’s per capita purchasing power parity (PPP) grew from $3,200 to $3,700, though it is still ranked 165th in the world. 2011 estimates of GDP composition by sector were 17.2% agriculture, 26.4% industrial, and 56.4% services. The labor force in 2009 was estimated at 52% in agriculture, 14% in industry, and 34% in services.
India’s main products can be divided into agricultural and industrial sections. Agricultural products broadly consist of: rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, lentils, onions, potatoes, dairy products, sheep, goats, poultry, and fish. Industrial products broadly consist of: textiles, chemicals, food processing, steel, transportation equipment, cement, mining, petroleum, machinery, software, and pharmaceuticals.
“Since 1990, India as a country has moved aggressively from a centrally planned economy to private ownership of businesses and trade liberalization. India has made substantial strides in reducing infant mortality, increasing life expectancy, and improving literacy. Yet poverty and malnutrition continue to plague India, as well as serious environmental issues.”
India’s energy production and consumption have rapidly expanded over the past two decades. In 2010, India produced approximately 880 billion kWh (kilowatt hours) of energy, and in 2009 consumed approximately 637.6 billion kWh, placing them as 7th in the world.
In contrast, the United States produced approximately 4.3 trillion kWh of energy in 2010, over 4 times the amount India produced – with ¼ of the population. In 2009, India’s energy use was placed at about 560 kg per capita, while the United States used just over 7,000 kg per capita. (world bank data from google).
In 2009, India received approximately 69.9% of its energy from fossil fuels, 2.2% from nuclear sources, 20.9% from hydroelectric sources, and 7% from renewable sources. 55% of India’s commercial, prime energy comes from coal (Brenkert and Malone).
India’s total CO2 emissions due to anthropogenic activities increased from 592 million Mt (metric tons) in 1990 to 778 million Mt in 1995. India is currently the third largest producer of CO2 emissions in the world, with 2010 emissions of approximately 1.696 billion Mt of CO2. In 2008, India’s per capita CO2 emissions were approximately 1.46 Mt, compared to the United State’s per capita CO2 emissions, which were approximately 17.96 Mt (world bank data from google). Electric power generation is the dominant source of CO2 emissions in India, followed by emissions from steel and cement plants. (Regional… India 2001)
India is the 3rd largest emitter of methane in the world, predominately from livestock and rice production sources (EPA). India possesses the world’s largest population of livestock, with approximately 485 million animals. Mostly cattle, India also possesses goats, buffalo, and sheep.
38.2% of the 485 million animals are cattle, 25.7% are goats, 20.2% are buffalo, 12.7% are sheep, and 3.3% represent other animals. India has 57% of the worlds buffalo population and 16% of the world’s cattle. In 2003, the total methane emissions from Indian livestock was 11.75 million metric tons. Dairy buffalo and dairy cattle together contribute 60% of total methane production. (Spatial… livestock 2009)
The World Bank estimated that the “developing world will suffer 80% of the damage from climate change despite accounting for only one third of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. [1.] India may have very low per capita CO2 emissions but is currently the third largest emitter in the world. The only reason India’s per capita emissions have remained low is due to its massive population- 1.1 billion people (or 17% of the world’s population). [2.] Increased global pressure had been seen as a threat to India’s environmental policy makers ten years ago, but now as the nation is gradually shaping a plan this pressure is welcome. India’s climate is one of the most vulnerable in the world due to climate change and pursuing more sustainable policy will help growth as time goes on. [3.]
File:Indiasmog.jpgIndia's population and Carbon Dioxide emissions will continue to soar until 2031.
It is predicted that India will experience (and some parts of the country already have) sea surges and with that salt intrusion, major drought, water shortage from Himalayan glaciers melting, flooding, and other climate-related events.
India uses the historic principle as a main argument against binding international emissions agreements because they feel they did not create the mess. Prime Minister Singh is pushing for equity in emission reductions, in that emission reductions should be fair and equal to all countries of the world.
Prime Minister Manmohan Singh released India’s first National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) in June of 2008. There are eight core “national missions” that will last through 2017. The NAPCC will maintain the priority of high economic growth rates to relieve poverty throughout the country, thus will address development objectives and climate change simultaneously. Yet to achieve this India still hopes for some assistance from developed countries and therefore pledges that per capita greenhouse gas emissions “will at no point exceed that of developed countries even as we pursue our development objectives.” [4.]
National Solar Mission: The plan aims to encourage the use and development of solar energy for power, and eventually making solar competitive with fossil fuels. There are specific goals to increase the use of solar technology throughout the country, increase production and research of solar technologies, and strengthen manufacturing capacity.
National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency: Building on the Energy Conservation Act of 2001, which is currently expected to yield savings of 10,000 MW by 2012, there will be mandated energy consumption decreases to large industries and energy incentives.
National Mission on Sustainable Habitat: To promote energy efficiency as a main aspect of urban planning by further emphasizing waste management and recycling, updating the Energy Conservation Building Code, and incentives for using public transportation.
National Water Mission: Improving water use efficiency by 20% through pricing and other measures to prepare for projected water scarcity due to climate change.
National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem: To conserve “biodiversity, forest cover, and other ecological values” in the Himalayan region that will be hugely impacted by global warming- including the glaciers that are a major source of India’s water supply.
National Mission for a “Green India”: Plans to increase India’s forest cover from 23% to 33% of the country.
National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture: Prepares agricultural sector to adapt to climate changes through development of “climate-resilient crops”, efficient use of water, and other agriculture practices.
National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change: To create a Climate Science Research Fund to increase understanding of climate science, impacts, and challenges through improved climate modeling and personal collaboration.
Aspects of India’s NAPCC include: a pledge for per capita emissions to stay under that of United States citizens, keeping the global temperature rise below two degrees Celsius, and researching more sustainable methods of development. [5.] India will not however agree to any internationally binding emission targets because they feel they still have the right to develop and grow their economy, as they feel fit. Yet India continues to research and push climate-friendly policies because its vulnerability as a nation.
India announced this plan in 2008 and at this point there is very little to show for their work. In many papers there were hopes to evaluate the implementation of the NAPCC, but it is currently not an option because implementation has occurred at a much slower rate than policy directors anticipated. Climate change policy in the United States is very similar in that dreams can be big, but achievements are quite small and slow. India needs to establish checkpoints during certain years to ensure they are on the right track.
There have been mixed reactions to India’s new NAPCC- there has been both praise for missions and their specific policies and suggestions for current policies or the need for other policies. India’s NAPCC is a decent start, but there is little to show for changes that have been made.
A per capita approach is one that India is very satisfied with- they have pledged to keep their per capita emissions under that of more developed countries, mainly the United States. The big problem with this approach is that when dealing with India one must consider population growth. Currently India’s population is roughly four times that of the United States. From 1950 to 2000 India’s population went from 350 million to people to over a billion- an increase of 182%- whereas the U.S. grew from 157 million to 287 million- an increase of 54.7% (which is well below the world average). [6.] This brings up the historic principle India is so keen on using to defend its need to develop- “if developed nations are held responsible for emissions that they historically contributed, oblivious to their impact on climate change, why shouldn’t developing nations take responsibility for producing generations of people who will generate emissions into the future?” [6.] Therefore a per capita approach alone will not solve the climate problem at hand.
While the NAPCC is a good starting point there is much more India still needs more work done to combat climate change. There is some criticism of the missions of the NAPCC- the missions are too broad, thus if the missions were smaller and more focused there could be more results seen for India. For example these missions will not solve all the water and emissions problems India has been facing for decades, but a “mission to improve efficiency of urban water use” may make a dent in the problem. [7.] Another criticism is that there are no targets mentioned for emission reduction and the missions are “not prioritized with clear sustainable development-focused approaches and outcomes.” [7.]
Climate change is an international problem with many dimensions from CO2 emissions to sea level rise, from drought to more severe natural disasters, and many more. A problem like this that knows no national boundaries needs massive international cooperation and collaboration of multiple agencies within countries for a change to be made. Currently India’s NAPCC has little interagency collaboration as each mission is carried out by different agencies. India’s national agencies for development and the economy need to use climate change as an opportunity for change instead of an obstacle to overcome.
India is hoping for some assistance of developed countries for their plan to work out and it would be in developed countries, like the United States, best interest to help them. The United States does not want to cut CO2 emissions unless China and India are noticeably cutting their emissions, yet India is not going to cut emissions since they feel they have the right to continue to develop as they want. Neither country will get anywhere without the help of the other thus the United States should just develop sustainable ways for development and sell them to India and then India will begin to noticeably cut their emissions while still developing as they feel they should.
With a population of 1.2 billion people, India is home to a sixth of humanity. It is also the world’s seventh largest country. India has been a centerpiece in international negotiations on climate change and is greatly threatened by the impacts of climate change. [1]
Across the country, India shows a wide range of climatic conditions—from the high altitude Himalayas to the marine climates of the coastline and islands. India has arid deserts in the northwest and tropical forests in the north east.[2]
The impacts of climate change will vary greatly across these different landscapes. Experts warn that rising temperatures will lead to changes in storm patterms, rising sea levels, more floods, freshwater scarcity, increased spread of disease, resource conflicts, and unpredictable farm yields. [1]
A projected temperature rise of between 1.7 degrees Celsius and 2 degrees Celsius in India over the next 20 year will have major implications throughout the country. Already increased temperatures in India are particularly noticeable during the post-monsoon and winter seasons. By mid-century, mean winter temperatures could increase by as much as 3.2 degrees Celsius and mean summer temperatures could go up by 2.2 degrees Celsius.[1] Extremes in maximum and minimum temperature are also expected to increase in the future; however night temperatures are increasing faster than day temperatures.[3]
These changes could spur dramatic climate variability throughout the country.[1]
As a result of increases in temperature, significant changes in rainfall patterns have already been observed across India since the 20th century.[4]
Rainfall patterns will continue to change. Scientist predict that India will experience a significant decline in average summer rainfall by 2050. Averages for winter rains are also predicted to fall by 10-20 percent within the same period.[1] There are substantial spatial differences in the projected rainfall changes depending on the region of India. Changes in precipitation will vary greatly across the country. West central India actually shows the greatest expected increase in rainfall, which is predicted to occur as temperatures continue to climb.[3] On the other hand, central India will experience a decrease between 10 and 20 percent in winter rainfall by mid-century.[2]
Monsoon Season: The southwest summer monsoon is a three to four-month period when massive convective thunderstorms dominate India’s weather. It is vital for India’s water and agricultural needs, providing up to 70% of India’s annual rainfall. Climate change impacts to India’s monsoon season are predicted to increase monsoon intensity and variability.[1] As a result, rain-fed wheat cultivation will suffer while rice yields are expected to increase. Additionally, tropical cyclones are also expected to intensify by 10-20% in response to a 2 to 4 degree increase in global temperatures.[3]
Flooding: The Himalayas are home to some of the world’s largest glaciers. It is predicted that there will be an increase in the phenomenon of glacial lake outburst floods in the eastern and central parts of the Himalayas. This will cause catastrophic flooding downstream. In addition to the glacial lake outburst floods, the Himalayan glaciers are predicted to have overall increased rates of melting due to higher temperatures. As the melting season coincides with the monsoon season, any intensification of the monsoon is likely to contribute to additional flood disasters in the Himalayan catchment.[1] Another source of flooding is from sea level rise occurring along India’s coasts. See Sea level rise below for more details.
The Himalayas are home to the largest amount of glaciers after the North and South Poles. Glaciers in the Himalayas are sources of fresh water for perennial rivers, in particular the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra river systems. Evidence shows that some Himalayan glaciers have retreated significantly since the 1800’s. The Gangotri glacier, a well known glacier in the Himalayas, is retreating at about 28 meters per year. Any additional warming will continue to increase the melting of glaciers. This will lead to increased summer flows in some rivers for a few decades, followed by a reduction in flow as glaciers retreat. This will greatly impact water availability and agriculture for areas below the Himalayas dependent on snow and glacial melt. This problem is compounded with the substantial changes in the Himalayan region as a result of extensive land use such as deforestation, urbanization, and agricultural practices in recent decades. This has led to increased frequency of hydrological disasters, enhanced sedimentation, and pollution of lakes.[4]
Increases in temperature and significant changes in rainfall patterns throughout the 20th century have led to serious environmental problems in India. In the Indo-Gangetic Plain region various rivers, including Kosi, Ganga, Ghaghara, Son, Indus, and Yamuna, have changed their course a number of times. The recent devastating floods in Nepal and Bihar are attributed to the change in course of River Kosi.
With increased temperatures and changes in rainfall patterns, climate change already poses serious risks to water availability in India. A changing climate will exacerbate challenges that the agricultural sector already faces as well as indirectly worsening issues such as soil erosion. Withdrawal rates are increasing in what is already a water scarce environment. The agricultural, industrial, and domestic sectors will likely have increased demand for groundwater resources due to shifts in water availability from other sources. Overexploitation of groundwater is already an issue in many areas of India.[4] Like other countries around the world, India is extracting groundwater at an unsustainable rate. The situation in Maharashtra in Western India has already reached a critical level, as the sugarcane farmers use water at an unsustainable rate. In Punjab the water table is dropping by 1m every year. In the coastal regions of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Gujarat over extraction has allowed saltwater into aquifers.[5]
Compounded with population increase and greater demand for water, climate change poses a serious risk to water availability. The consequences of future climatic change may be felt more severely in developing countries such as India, whose economy is largely dependent on agriculture and is already under stress.[4]
Conflict over internationally shared watersheds will be an issue for India as water availability shifts due to climate change. India shares six river basins with seven countries; China became a basin partner following the annexation of Tibet.[5] India is in both upper and lower riparian country: China, Nepal, and Bhutan are upper riparian countries, while Bangladesh is a lower riparian country. This puts India in a difficult situation, as its approach to water sharing issues is subject to intensive scrutiny by countries that also have high demand for freshwater.[5] Bangladesh is already pushing to renegotiate water treaties with India. Conflicts will most likely increase in the future.[4]
Due to the melting of ice sheets around the world, such as the Greenland ice sheet, the sea level is rising. Along the Indian coast, a trend of sea level rise of 1cm per decade has been recorded.[1] The rate of sea level rise will likely increase as climate change continues melting major ice sheets. With a densely populated coastline, a one meter sea level rise could displace approximately 7.1 million people, result in the loss of over 5000 sq. km of land, damage coastal infrastructure, and lead to the salinization of fertile agricultural soils.[2] Areas such as the Ganga, Brahmaputra, and Indus river, will be affected.[1] Additional adverse effects on coastal zones are erosion, flooding, damage to nursery areas for fisheries, and the submergence and deterioration of coastal ecosystems.[6]
Climate change is posing a serious threat to many of India’s ecosystems. India has immense biodiversity and encompasses features ranging from deserts to glaciers. Mountain ecosystems are hot spots of biodiversity. However human activities in conjunction with temperature increases are causing fragmentation and degradation of mountain biodiversity and biodiversity across the different landscapes of India.[4] Changes in species assemblages and invasive species are major issues that can largely be attributed to climate change.
The Himalayas are a lifeline in terms of river water in India. China, Pakistan, Nepal, and several other neighboring countries also owe many of their perennial rivers to the seasonal melt of glaciers in the Indian Himalayas. Climate change is threatening the massive Himalayan glaciers. The glacial lake outburst floods that are more likely to occur in the Himalayas will cause catastrophic flooding downstream, with serious damage to life, property, forests, farms, and infrastructure’. Ecosystems dependent on the perennial rivers from glacial melt will be dramatically impacted by climate change.[4] Warmer temperatures at high elevations are a major issue for alpine ecosystems. Species that require colder temperatures and higher altitudes will likely be replaced by other species assemblages who thrive in warmer environments.
About 50 percent of forests in India are predicted to undergo significant shifts due to climate change. Forests in the upper Himalayan Mountains, across parts of Central India, and in the northern Ghat Mountains are most vulnerable. Low tree density, low biodiversity status, higher levels of fragmentation, and increased impacts of climate change contribute to the vulnerability of these forests. In contrast, the northeastern forests, southern Ghats, and forested regions of eastern India are estimated to be the least vulnerable. The mountainous forests are most susceptible to the adverse effects of climate change.[7]
The Indo-Gangetic Ecosystem is closely interlinked with the Himalayan rivers. The Indo-Gangetic Ecosystem is primarily an agricultural ecosystem. Given that nearly 65-70% of Indians rely on agriculture as their primary occupation, predictions for the impacts of climate change on agriculture are a serious issue.[4]
The desert ecosystems comprise arid and semi-arid regions. This accounts for nearly 40 percent of the country’s geographical area and spreads over 10 states. There is a rich diversity of desert fauna, including a wide range of mammals and winter migratory birds. Deserts have shown signs of expansion, a process called desertification. However, this isn’t necessarily increasing the habitat of species in these areas due to climate patterns altering the natural attributes of the desert ecosystems. These changes include increased temperatures and variations in flooding.[4]
The coastal and marine ecosystems are very important to India in terms of biological diversity and the economy. The mangrove forests of the rivers, which are wetland areas, and the coasts act as a carbon sink as well as habitat for a unique diversity of plants and animals. The wetlands also act as a natural barrier to flooding and cyclones, both of which are predicted to intensify due to climate change. However, rising sea levels are threatening to overtake these areas. Coral bleaching is also occurring in these ecosystems due to warmer ocean temperatures.[4]
The peninsular ecosystem is a monsoon dependent ecosystem. Climate change is linked with changing monsoon patterns. India is dependent on the monsoon to meet agricultural and water needs, and also for protecting and propagating its rich biodiversity.[4]
Increases and decreases in overall rainfall, depending on region, in addition to shifts in the timing of the rainfall will adversely affect agriculture in India. Throughout most of India, the total duration of crop cycles will be reduced by higher temperatures, which will lead to lower crop yields per unit area. India’s wheat and paddy crops will be particularly affected by these changes.
Agriculture will not only be adversely affected by increases and decreases in the overall amounts of rainfall, but also by shifts in the timing of the rainfall. Any change in rainfall patterns poses a serious threat to agriculture, and therefore the economy and food security. Predictions for declines in summer rainfall, which accounts for almost 70 percent of total annual rainfall, will have major impacts on agriculture. Relatively small climate changes can cause large water resource problems, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions such as northwest India.[2] Increased frequencies of droughts, floods, storms, and cyclones are likely to increase agricultural production variability as well.[4]
Soil erosion and increased numbers of pests and weeds brought by climate change will exacerbate negative impacts to India’s agriculture. Soil will be affected by changes in factors such as rainfall, temperature, flooding, vegetation regimes, and evapotranspiration. These changes could lead to increased soil erosion and degradation.[1] Land salinity is also a major issue in India. The root cause of land salinity and land degradation was the introduction of canal irrigation. Land quality has decreased dramatically over the past 200 years.[5] With climate change causing changes in temperature and precipitation regimes, these issues are predicted to increase due a response in agricultural practices.
It is estimated that every 1 degree Celsius increase will likely result in a 5-10 percent reduction in yields of India’s main crops. Climate change will increase fertilizer requirements for the same production targets and result in higher GHG emissions, ammonia volatilization, and cost of crop production. As previously mentioned, the impacts of climate change will vary greatly by region. Rain fed wheat cultivation will suffer and total cereal production will go down due to climate change. The Indian government is encouraging farmers to explore options of changing crops more suitable to different conditions. Climate changes could lead to major food security issues for a country like India.[6]
The far reaching consequences of climate change have forced policymakers and planners to look at every possible aspect of human survival.[4] Human health in India will be adversely affected by rising temperatures and changes in humidity and precipitation. Heat Stress could result in heat cramps, heat exhaustion, heat stroke, and weakened immune systems. Higher temperatures can increase the range of vector-borne diseases such as malaria, particularly in regions where minimum temperatures currently limited the spread of such diseases.[1] Infectious diseases may spread beyond their traditional geographic regions. The poor are often forced to live in overcrowded areas with limited access to water and sanitation. Increased flooding will exacerbate sanitation issues and lack in clean water.[3] In conjunction with other climate issues, such as rising sea level, movement of major populations from coastal areas in the future could further worsen these issues. Additionally, negative impacts to agriculture resulting in decreased crop yields could stress food supplies, translating into wider prevalence of malnutrition. In a country like India that already deals with widespread poverty, this is a major concern. These negative effects will be more concentrated on poor populations that already have compromised health prospects. This will widen the inequality gap between the most and least privileged in India.[4] Changes in health impacts will vary greatly across the different regions in India.
India in International Climate Change Negotiations
Considered one of the greatest challenges the global community has ever faced, climate change transcends national boundaries and affects all living organisms, in every country. As the science emerged in the latter half of the 20th century about the adverse effects of climate change, the international community grew worrisome and created an international forum called the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC). The first Conference was in 1992 in Rio de Janerio, Brazil (commonly known as the Earth Summit). The UNFCCC has defined the objective of the conference as,
“that the Conference of the Parties may adopt is to achieve, in accordance with the relevant provisions of the Convention, stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. Such a level should be achieved within a time-frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure that food production is not threatened and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner.” (8)
Although 194 countries have signed the treaty,including the United States, China, and India, it is not a binding contract; instead, the contract establishes a framework for negotiating international treaties or “protocols,” which contain binding contracts on greenhouse gases. Since India is the world’s third largest emitter of harmful gases, their actions in international negotiations have been crucial.
The Kyoto Protocol (Protocol) was adopted at the Third Conference of the Parties in 1997, five years after the first Conference (15). The Protocol grouped countries into either Annex I (developed countries) or Annex II (developing countries), and stipulates that only Annex I countries are required to take action at reducing GHG emissions. Although the Protocol was signed in 1997 it was not implemented until 2005, after 55 ‘Annex I’ nations ratified the protocol. Developing countries, like India, where except from signing the protocol for a variety of reasons ranging from the principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR) to human rights (Rajamani). CBDR was established in the 1992 Rio Declaration, which states under Principle 7:
“In view of the different contributions to global environmental degradation, States have common but differentiated responsibilities. The developed countries acknowledge the responsibility that they bear in the international pursuit of sustainable development in view of the pressures their societies place on the global environment and of the technologies and financial resources they command,” (9).
Furthermore, the Protocol recognizes the right of developing countries to benefit from the same standard of life as developed countries. Estimates by the Human Development Indicators denote that about 35% of India’s 1 billion citizens live on less than US$1 a day (10). Dr. Manmohan Singh, Prime Minister of India said, “Our people have a right to economic and social development and to discard the ignominy of widespread poverty.” Despite the severe poverty, India is still the world’s third largest emitter of GHG, contributing 5.5% to the worlds GHG emission or about 1 billion tones of GHG per capita (11).
Although widely accepted, the Kyoto Protocol has triggered opposition, most notably from the United States. Refusing to sign the treaty, mainly because developing nations, including India, would be exempt from emission reductions under the Protocol.
Gas emission policies emerge in many forms of international government, including the annual Group of Eight (G8) meeting. G8 is a forum of the world’s largest eight economies, which includes Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, United Kingdom, and the United States, to discuss a wide range of topics of global magnitude.
While deliberating at the annual G8 meeting in 2007, Climate Change was addressed, and all parties agreed industrialized nations would aim to at least halve global GHG emissions by 2050.However, unlike the Kyoto protocol, developing nations are also incorporated into the process of GHG emission cuts, particularly India (12).
In response to the instigation of internationally imposed GHG reductions a senior Indian official said that India would not curb gas emissions as the West treats India like ‘second class citizens’ with less rights to pollute than the developing world (13). India has stated that it still plans to continue their 8 per cent economic growth and that "the goals of addressing climate change cannot supersede our goals of maintaining our current rates of GDP growth and poverty alleviation programs, as was agreed by everyone at Kyoto," (13).
The Indian government released Road to Copenhagen(2009) and illustrated three reasons for India resisting calls by developed countries to take on specific targets for the reduction of domestic GHG emissions. Firstly, India argues that Climate Change is not taking place because of current levels of GHG emissions, but as a result of accumulation of GHGs in the atmosphere by developed countries. For this reason industrialized countries need deep and significant cuts in their emissions because of their historic responsibility. Secondly, the UNFCCC does not require developing countries, like India, to take on any commitments on reducing their GHG emissions. Social and economic development of developing countries will inevitably result in the increase of their GHG emissions. Notwithstanding, India has agreed to not allow domestic per capita GHG emissions to exceed the average per capita emissions of the developed countries. Essentially, India has self imposed a cap on their emissions, which would be lowered if developed countries would be more ambitious in reducing their own emissions. Thirdly, it would be naïve to consider India a “major emitter.” India’s per capita GHG emissions hover around 1.1 tonnes, whereas, the United States emits 20 tonnes per capita and China 10 tonnes per capita. There is a large gap between India and the two, true “major emitters,” even despite India’s large population and rapidly growing economy (11).
Going into the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen (Copenhagen Summit) India was vocal about their outrage at the developed countries “relentless efforts” to impose legally binding targets for carbon emission cuts (14). While at the Copenhagen Summit, India along with Brazil, South Africa, and China introduced the first developing nations super group, forming a powerful negotiating bloc (15). When this super group, known as BASIC, emerged, they broke ranks with the traditional group of developing countries, known as G-77, mainly due to their new role currently evolving in the world order. “Today countries like India, China, Brazil and South Africa are making a transition from a developing to the developed. They are in both camps and they are working out a compromise,” said foreign secretary Lalit Mansingh. BASIC countries made clear the purpose of the Copenhagen Summit was the continuation of the Kyoto Protocol as the only international binding text and the only matters of debate should be in reference to the determination of new restrictions on the quantity of GHG emissions for developed countries (15).
In short, the Copenhagen Accord established a commitment to limit global warming to two degrees (however, it failed to spell out specific targets) and, to the dismay of developed countries, allowed developing countries, most importantly BASIC, to remain exempt from binding contracts and the continuation of voluntary pledges to GHG reductions.Voluntary pledges have been taken seriously by India as they announced a voluntary limitation of GHG emissions by 20-25% by 2020 from 2005 levels, which the India government is confident in not only meeting the goal but also improving upon it. Indian Environment Minister Jairam Ramesh said in reference to the Copenhagen Accord that, “mitigation actions of the developing countries will be subject to domestic measurement, domestic reporting and domestic verification, as per its internal procedures.” (14)
After the 2012 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Doha, the capital of Quatar, the Kyoto Protocol still remains the only binding contract in regards to international climate change mitigation. The conference established a timetable for negotiating a comprehensive global agreement by 2015, which would include all major emitters, including India. Although no fiscal responsibilities were specifically outlined at the conference it did, however, potentially open the door for future compensation paid by developed nations to developing ones (16).Essentially, the Kyoto Protocol is still in effect, and all the major issues have been placed on the agenda for the next Conference.
India is in a tough spot with respect to climate change negotiations as they are in desperate need of assistance from other countries to prepare themselves for the effects of climate change. Yet they are off to a positive start with their national plan that acknowledges that climate change is happening and that they need a mitigation plan. One of the simplest plans of action could be that the United States develops new green technology to sell to India to help them industrialize and continue to grow their economy, while the United States could continue to cut their emissions hopefully at a faster rate than currently. This would benefit both countries and the United States would not be as burdened with the climate change problem and could help India continue to grow and develop their economy and focus on controlling their population growth. That is one major component that is lacking in India’s plan- something to address their out of control population growth. With all the changes India is expected to experience due to climate change one of the best plans of action would be to control the population before it gets more out of hand and the world experiences the drastic consequences of climate change.
^ abcdefghijkReuters News Corp. “FACTBOX - Impact of Climate Change on India.” Reuters 29 June 2009, reuters.com. Accessed 29 Nov. 2012. [1]
^ abcd India Climate Portal. “What Climate Change Means for India.” Climate Challenge India; Centre for Social Markets. Accessed 3 Dec. 2012. [2]
^ abcdSeath, Freya. “The Human Impact of Climate Change.” The Centre for Legislative Research and Advocacy; Oxfam India. Accessed 3 Dec. 2012. [3]
^ abcdefghijklmnRajya Sabha Research Unit (Larrdis). “Climate Change: Challenges to Sustainable Development in India.” Occasional Paper Series. Rajya Sabha Secretariat, New Dehli, Oct. 2008. Accessed 29 Nov. 2012. [4]
^ abcdRay, Binayak. Climate Change: Ipcc, Water Crisis, and Policy Riddles with Reference to India and Her Surroundings. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc, 2011. eBook. p 48, p 184.
^ abThomas, E C. “Climate change and its impact on India.” Rediff.com, 5 June 2007. Accessed 5 Dec. 2012. [5]
^Ministry of Environment & Forests, Government of India. “Climate Change and India: A 4X4 Assesment - A Sectoral and Regional Analysis for 2030s.” Indian Network for Climate Change Assessment (2010). Accessed 29 Nov. 2012. [6]
^ For additional information about the history of India and the Indian subcontinent, please see these pages and their reference lists: Indus Valley Civilization, History of India
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