User:Joseph Walsh

On the difference between life and death

      The questions used for this paper will be these: what is life and what is death? The following pages will attempt to answer these questions. The answer will arise from the thesis. I have made these questions from the lack of a proper definition on what is life and what is death.

The thesis was first thought of when I was in university, when I was presented with the case that life and death did not have a definition. I was sceptical of this. I did some more research and found out that life and death do have definitions, but these definitions presented themselves as an equivocal list. What the reader needs to do to fully appreciate the work at hand is, that, the book is an argumentative structure. I will attempt to assess the thesis in the following chapters. Another means of appreciating the work is that there are various subjects attempting to prove the thesis. The topic that I am mainly interested in is animal behaviour. This book does comprise of different subjects other than ethology. These other subjects being: (1) anatomy, (2) biology and, (3), physiology, to prove the thesis. These have arisen from the writers head, so, there are possibly other subjects used within this book―perhaps (4), botany. The topic that I would like to know more about is not necessarily the biology of the different order of species. I would like on the other hand to understand the means in which the different chapters will prove the thesis. This could therefore also be stated that I will enjoy the learning process as I continue on with this book. The main chapter that I would like to know more about is adaptation. The hardest chapters to prove will be: (1), metabolism and, (2), homeostasis. The reason for this is because we are dealing with chemical structures and not a strict biological system. In the mean time, I will prove that the organism behaves to the stimulus of the chemical structure in both metabolic processes and homeostatic processes. How I created the thesis was by a thought experiment. The thought experiment was that if a person were to poke a dead fox with a stick, the dead fox would not move. I therefore formed the words together to create a thesis that would define what is life and death. I complied the words together and it was first said as, “life, is an organism that behaves to an external stimulus; death, is an organism that does not behave to an external stimulus”. For a while I had kept the definition in my head, but after a while, to my dismay, I had forgotten the definition of life. Two years later my brother had said that there was in fact no definition of life, so I tried to think of one. To my joy, I had remembered the old definition which I had thought of in university. This was that life is an organism that behaves to an external stimulus. My brother liked the definition and I thought to myself that I should write it down. Then after a while, I changed this definition to, life, is an organism that behaves to a stimulus. The reason for changing it was that, if that old definition held true, then, if I were to behave to my own inner metabolism of digestion with anxiety to know who knows what was in my tract, invariably then, I must have been dead. The problem with the references is that it is not geared towards proving the thesis correct. I will need to present the references in a fashion that will prove the thesis true. Other references are far from proving the thesis correct, so, it will take some power of thought to make the thesis correct. The book will be one argument about pieces of evidence which will prove the thesis. The reason that I have made this book into one argument is because I wanted the reader to feel convinced that this thesis is true. The reader could say that I could turn the thesis into a theory, but, from the sake of trying to be modest, I have chosen to call it a thesis. I have also made it to where the argument is presented in a multiple thesis form, like the tractatus. I find it easier to write this way because I can avoid patch writing at all costs. The reason for me creating this work is because there is no pre-existing, unequivocal definition between what is life and what is death. The existing definition that does exist for life is an equivocal list, and, the existing definition for death is ambiguous. I wish to present a thesis that will define life and death in unambiguous and in unequivocal terms. In other words, for the pre-existing definition, there is more than one meaning to what is life and to what is death. The thesis will be this: life is an organism that behaves to a stimulus; what death means is an organism that does not behave to a stimulus. The reason for me using the word organism, even when a cell is not presently an organism, is because if cells have small organ systems called organelles, and an organism is a system that is composed of organ systems, then, therefore, a cell is an organism but a small one. Another reason is because of the suffix and prefix of organism. An organ, ism. If this is not correct then therefore there needs to be a word that would explain the similarity between organisms and cells in terms of them being life forms. This would change the thesis to: life is a (?) that behaves to a stimulus. Death on the other hand will be defined as: death is a (?) that does not behave to a stimulus. I will use organism because the deduction holds true. I will not use the word life form because I do not want to define a word with the same word as within the definition. This breaks a rule of definition creation. An example of this is to define life as a life form that behaves to a stimulus. This could be used for the definition of death, but this creates the question of what is a life form? This will raise another argument which I wish not to do.

Organism (chapter 1) An organism is a system composed of organ systems. 1. A system is a set of interacting components. 1.1 A set is defined in the mathematical sense as a collection of well defined objects. 1.1.1. Well defined in the mathematical sense is an assignment of a definition to a value. 1.1.1.1. I do not know how to create an equation that would show that life equals an organism that behaves to a stimulus, death on the other hand equalling an organism that does not behave to a stimulus; I do not know how to make that well defined; all I know how to do is to make a definition for life and death. 1.2 An interaction is a particular action that happens in the midst of two or more objects. 1.2.1. Interconnectivity is a particular type of interaction within systems. 1.2.1.1. Symbiosis is a type of interconnectivity in nature as an interaction between two different biological species. 1.2.1.1.1. Scientists refer to symbiosis to mutualism, which is where two organisms benefit from one another. 1.2.1.1.1.1. The reason that symbiosis is important in this sense is because if Scientists refer to symbiosis to mutualism to an organisms’ ‘quality of life,’ this can depend on whether there is a symbiotic relationship or not; the other ‘quality of life,’ this can depend on whether there is a communalistic or parasitic relationship; symbiosis is the umbrella term for these three types of organismal relationships.# 1.2.1.1. The more important interconnectivity is the biophysical environment that affects an organism. 1.2.1.1.1 This could be three different types of biophysical environments which are (1), marine environment (2), atmospheric environment (3), terrestrial environment.# 1.2.2 Emergence is a phenomenon where complex entities arise through interactions of simpler entities. 1.2.2. Emergence is also a phenomenon where complex entities differ in their properties from those of simpler entities. 1.2.3 Action in this sense is in the Newtonian sense in that there is an equal and opposite reaction of every action.# 1.2.3.1 Reaction and action in the Newtonian sense are simultaneous.# 1.2.3.1.1. This therefore means that reaction and action are both forces that are parts of a system that are in interaction with one another.# 1.2.3.1 Reaction in the Chemical sense is a process that interacts to create a set of chemical substances. 1.2.3.1.1 Interaction therefore means reactions that work within systems. 1.2.3.1.2. This does not contradict Newton’s law of motion. 1.2.3.1.2.1. The difference is that Newton deals with bodies whereas chemistry deals with chemical substances. 1.2.3.1.2.1.1. One could argue that bodies and chemical substances are different in that chemical substances is a form of matter that has a constant chemical composition and characteristic properties, and that bodies, is an object in physics; one concrete and the other abstract. 1.2.3.1.2.1.1.1. A constant is a fixed mathematical object. 1.2.3.1.2.1.1.2. A chemical composition corresponds to the relative amount of elements that constitute a substance. 1.2.3.1.2.1.1.2.1 An element in this sense is a chemical element that is a species of atoms having the same number of protons in their atomic nuclei.# 1.2.3.1.2.1.1.2.2 A substance in this sense is in the ontological sense in that a substance is different from properties or characteristic properties. 1.2.3.1.2.1.1.3. A characteristic property in as attribute of an object. 1.2.2.1 The phenomenon of life which is an organism that behaves to a stimulus is an emergent property of chemistry. 1.2.2.1.2. There must be a system from the above propositions that allows it to be a chemical system. 1.2.2.1.2.1. If an organism is a system composed of organ systems then, this would mean that an organism is an emergent property of organ systems. 1.2.2.1.2.1.2.1. The difference is that composition is in the concrete and emergent properties are in the abstract. 1.2.2.1.2.1.2. If behaviour is a response to particular stimulus, then, this would mean that, it is either a body in the abstract sense in physics or, it is a chemical substance in the concrete sense; an example of a behaviour would be depression caused by a serotonin deficiency 1.2.2.1.2.1.2. If stimulus is a perceptible change in the environment, then, this would mean that a change is either in the abstract sense of the body as an object of physics or, it is concrete in the sense of a chemical substance as change. 1.2.2.1 Life is an emergent property of chemistry. 1.3 A component is a number of elements that represents the minimum number of species of a phase of a system. 1.3.1 A phase is a region of space throughout which its properties are uniform.### 1.3.2. Toxicity is a chemical property of life that has a phase. 1.3.3. Health is a chemical property of life that has a phase. 1.3.2 and 3.1 Toxicity and health are both degrees and functional metabolic inefficiencies or efficiencies of organisms. 1.3.2.1. Degrees are used in scales of temperature. 1.3.2.1.1. Toxicity can either be hot or cold temperatures depending on the homeostasis of the organism. 1.3.2.1.2. Health can either be hot or cold temperatures depending on the homeostasis of the organism. 1.3.2.2. Functional metabolic efficiencies is an improvement in the process that occurred within a system of evolution. 1.3.2.3.1 Evolution is therefore a functional metabolic efficiency in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over time.## 1.3.2.3. Functional metabolic inefficiencies is a diminishment in the process that occurred within a system that devolved through another interacting process of devolution. 1.3.2.3.2 Devolution is therefore a functional metabolic inefficiency in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over time. 2. An organ is a collection of tissues joined together in order to serve a particular function. 2.1. Tissue means an emergent property of similar functioning cells. 2.2. Function means, in terms of biology, is the reason for a process to occur in a system that evolved through natural selection.# 2.2.1. Natural selection is the survival and reproductive success of species that are best adjusted to their environment which these ‘fit’ species pass on their genes. 2.3. A reason is an abstraction of the causation of a process to occur. 2.3.1. Causation is both a property of all systems and causation can only happen within a process; a process is both an abstraction and a series of actions for a particular result; an action being in the chemical sense which also means that causation only happens within chemical processes. 2.3.2. Causation always therefore has a teleology to it; processes always therefore have teleology to it; systems always therefore have a teleology to it; chemical processes therefore always has a teleology to it. 2.4 Organ systems means an emergent property of organs with a particular function. 2.5. Organ means an emergent property of tissues with a particular function.

Behaviour (chapter 2) A behaviour is a response to a particular stimulus. 1. If behaviour is an evolutionarily adaptive trait, then, this would mean that behaviour has arisen from natural selection.# 1. If behaviour is an evolutionarily adaptive trait, then, this would mean that genetic material has been passed down which would explain behaviour.# 1. Behaviour can be both innate and learned. 1.1 Innate as in genetic material passed on to succeeding generations. 1.2.1. Action and reaction belongs to Newtonian physics whereas behaviour belongs to organisms. 1.2.2. I believe there is genetic material passed on which is fed forward to other organisms; these organisms have an innate capacity to acquire behaviour and learn; which seems that nature and nurture are both correct because it is in our nature to learn, but it is also nurtured in us from other organisms to learn too from their genetically innate, passed on material. 1.2.1. Animal behaviour can be trained by animal training; organismal behaviour is passed on from other organisms as a simultaneous action and reaction. 1.2.1.1. Animal training consists of natural behaviours which the trainer selects of whether they should continue or discontinue certain behaviours; animal training also happens because a trainer needs an animal to perform a required task. 1.2.1.2. If instinct is an inheritable tendency of an organism to make a particular reflex to a stimuli, then this is probably where behaviours first came from; reflexes were probably the first behaviours; behaviours being a learned reaction to a particular stimulus; it all began with the reflexes.#

Stimulus (part 3) A stimulus is a perceptible change in the environment. 1. A stimulus is a change but it can only be a perceptible one. 1.1. Perception is an organization of sensory information.# 1.2. Perception is an identification of sensory information. # 1.3. Perception is an interpretation of sensory information.# 1.1.1. These are in order to represent and understand the environment.# 1.1.2. An organism can physiologically perceive if it can detect a change; the following will be the different types of internal detection of change. 1.1.2.1. Homeostatic imbalances are a physiological detection of change within the body. 1.1.2.2. Homeostatic balances are not a physiological detection of change. 1.1.2.3. Blood pressure is measured by stretch receptors found in the carotid arteries. 1.1.3 An organism can physiologically perceive if it can detect a change; the following will be the different types of external detection of change. 1.1.3.1 Touch is one of the sensations produced by the somatosensory system. 1.1.3.2 Pain is a sensation by either an distressing, intense or damaging stimuli. 1.1.3.3 Vision is the sensation of sight. 1.1.3.4. Smell is the sensation of scent. 1.1.3.5 Taste is the sensation produced by taste receptors from a stimulus. 1.1.3.6. Sound is the sensation produced by the sound receptors from a stimulus. 1.1.3.7. To be continued. 2. All stimulus arises from the environment. 2.1. A property of an environment is that all environments change. 2.2. If something seems like an environment without change this could be a vacuum. 3. Stimulus in physiology is a detectable change in the environment. 4. Stimulus in psychology is an energy change registered by the senses. 5. I believe that physiological and psychological stimulus are almost the same, because both are registered by the senses albeit have different origins which is the reason for their distinction.

Homeostasis (chapter 4) The maintenance of an organism to equilibrium. 1. An example of homeostasis is the maintenance of body temperature. 1.1. This is called thermoregulation. 1.1.1. This is where an organism maintains a body temperature within the boundaries inside of an internal environment despite its external environment. 1.1.1.1. This has relevance because an organism is behaving to its external environment through homeostasis; the term homeostasis is a behaviour to a particular stimulus; some could argue that it is in fact a reaction to a particular stimulus, I on the other hand will argue that it is in fact a behaviour to a particular stimulus. 1.1.1.1.1. Others can use reaction to make it sound more understandable but these individuals are incorrect; the reason for this is because reaction and behaviour are different in this sense because a reaction is to a particular action as to one of Newton’s law of motion whereas behaviour is to a particular stimulus. Reactions do not pertain to perception whereas behaviours do pertain to perception. 1.1.1.1.1.1. The type of perception in terms of thermoregulation would be thermoception. 1.1.1.1.1.1.1. One should not become confused to the thermoceptors in the skin and the homeostatic thermoceptors in the brain of the hypothalamus; the homeostatic thermoceptors of the hypothalamus provide feedback on internal body temperature as messages. 2. Another example of homeostasis is the maintenance of glucose in the blood. 2.1. The type of perception in terms of a lack of glucose in the blood is hypoglycemia; the perception is to do with clumsiness, trouble talking, and seizures (at least in an individualized experience). 3. Another example of homeostasis is the maintenance of blood pressure. 3.1. The type of perception in terms of an abundance of blood pressure is hypertension.

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Metabolism (chapter 5) The set of life-sustaining chemical transformations in an organism. 1. The organism behaves to the chemical transformations as stimuli within metabolic processes. 2. The point of metabolism is because of the three processes of a behaviour to stimuli: 2.1. The conversion of fuel to energy to run cellular processes as a behaviour. 2.2. The conversion of fuel to build the body as a behaviour. 2.3. The elimination of nitrogenous wastes as a behaviour. 3. Enzyme-catalyzed reactions allow for the organisms to: 3.1. Grow, by behaving to the stimulus of enzyme- catalyzed reactions. 3.2. Reproduce, by behaving to the stimulus of enzyme-catalyzed reactions. 3.3. Stabilize, by behaving to the stimulus of enzyme catalyzed reactions. 3.4. Respond, by behaving to the stimulus of enzyme catalyzed reactions. 4. Metabolism can be broken down into two types of categories 4.1. Catabolism, which is the breaking down of organic matter. 4.2. Anabolism, which is the building up of organic matter. 5. The metabolic system of an organism determines which substances it will interpret as: 5.1. A nutritious stimulus. 5.2. A poisonous stimulus.

Growth (chapter 6) The maturation of an organism. 1. Plants produce new tissues throughout their life from meristems; plants that are alive will always have embryonic tissues.# 2. An animal embryo will produce all of the body parts at the early stages of its life needed for proper functioning. 3. The directional growth can occur via a plant’s response to a particular stimulus. 3.1. The first particular stimulus is light (phototropism). 3.2. The second particular stimulus is gravity (gravitropism). 3.3. The third particular stimulus is water (hydrotropism). 3.4 The fourth particular stimulus is touch (thigmotropism). 4. Plant growth is mediated by specific plant hormones.# 4.1. The first class of plant hormones is Abscisic acid hormone which mediates changes within the apical meristem.# 4.2. The second class of plant hormones is Auxins which influences in a positive way the cell enlargement, the bud formation, and the root initiation.# 4.3 The third class of plant hormones is Cytokinins which influences cell division and shoot formation. 4.4. The fourth class of plant hormones is Ethylene which affects cell growth and cell shape.# 4.5 The fifth class of plant hormones is Gibberellins which initiates mobilization of storage materials in seeds during germination stimulates bolting in biennials and stimulates pollen tube growth.

Adaptation (chapter 7) A trait that has evolved by means of natural selection. 1. A trait is in reference to a phenotypic trait. 1.1. This is the involvement of internal genes of organisms and their external characteristics. 1.1.1. These traits are similar in learning to its type: either environmentally determined or inherited, or a combination of the two happening at the same time within a system of environmental determination or inheritance.# 1.1.2. A phenotypic trait is also the measurable trait same with the trait in the sense I have used above to explain what adaptation means. 1.1.3. A phenotypic trait(s) behaves to its stimulus by means of evolution. 2. Evolution is the improvement of heritable characteristics of biological populations over time. 2.1. The means by which evolution behaves to a stimulus is natural selection; the driving force of evolution is therefore natural selection; the improvement of characteristics is done by natural selection by means of survival of certain traits within a population. 3. The means is the process by which the event occurred; as stated in the before chapters, a process always has a teleology to it; this therefore means that a process has a particular goal of causing a result to happen; in this case it is natural selection causing evolution to occur as a teleological process.

Reproduction (chapter 8) An organism which is produced by their parents. 1. Even if reproduction is fundamental feature of all known life, I believe that the reason for reproduction occurring is because of an organism behaving to a stimulus; reproduction on its own cannot exist without the stimulus that happens inside and outside of an organism. 2. Two types of reproduction exist. 2.1. Sexual reproduction. 2.1.1. This is where two gametes fuse together, showing that it is a process of one gamete (one of the smallest organisms as defined in the introduction) behaving to the stimulus of another gamete. 2.1.1.1. What stimulus the gametes respond to is the copy of the chromosome from one gamete (a sperm cell), and another chromosome from another gamete (egg); the stimulus is therefore the copy of the chromosome which causes the gametes to fuse together. 2.2. And asexual reproduction; there are different types of asexual reproduction that will be listed. 2.2.1. The first type of asexual reproduction is fission which can be broken down into two types of fission; the term fission means a division of one entity into two or more parts, plus, the regeneration of those parts into separate entities resembling the original.### 2.2.1.1. Binary fission is where a parent organism is replaced by two daughter organisms which causes them to divide into two; the stimulus that the organism behaves to is the replacement of the two daughter organisms being divided into two. 2.2.1.2. Multiple fission is where the nucleus of the parent cell divides several times by mitosis producing several nuclei; the stimulus that the organism behaves to the stimuli within mitosis which produces several nuclei###; the stimuli within mitosis is by which the organism behaves to are the different phases: 2.2.1.2.1. Prophase 2.2.1.2.2. Prometaphase 2.2.1.2.3. Metaphase 2.2.1.2.4. Anaphase 2.2.1.2.5. Telophase. 2.2.2. Budding is where a new organism develops from an outgrowth due to cell division at one particular site; the stimulus that the organism behaves to in budding is the different events within cell division. 2.2.3. Vegetative reproduction is the process whereby new organisms are produced by meristematic cells; the stimulus that the organism behaves to in vegetative reproduction are the meristematic cells.

Cells (chapter 9) These are the smallest organisms. 1. Even if cells are the basic functional units of all known organisms, I believe that these cells are organisms in and of themselves because, they have organelles which are the smallest known type of organs; cells are therefore the smallest organisms. 2. Cells consist of cytoplasm which is enclosed within a membrane.# 2.1. The cytoplasm is a protoplasm within a cell#; it responds to foreign stimulation such as amino acids, which causes maintenance within the cell. 2.2. The membrane is a selective barrier of the cell##; it responds to foreign stimulation by allowing it to pass through or not through the membrane.# 3. There are two types of cells that will be listed. 3.1. Prokaryotic cells, which lack membrane-bound organelles such as the nucleus.# 3.1.1. The Prokaryotic cell behaves to a foreign stimulus by behaving as a separator from its environment. 3.1. Eukaryotic cells, which have membrane-bound organelles such as the nucleus. 3.2.1. The Eukaryotic cells behaves to stimulus by behaving to three types of stimulation: 3.2.1.1. Chemosensation, a response to chemical stimuli. 3.2.1.2. Mechanosensation, a response to mechanical stimuli. 3.2.1.3 Thermosensation, a response to thermal stimuli. 4. The last behaviour of a cell that will be listed is cell signalling, preferably immunity. 4.1. Immunity is cell communication that attempts to organize a balanced state to protect the cell from infection.

Death (chapter 10) An organism which does not behave to a stimulus. 1. There are different types of death that will be listed. 1.1. Senescence, which is death caused by the cessation of division by mitosis because of shortening of telomeres. 1.1.1. The stimulus that the organism does not respond to and cannot respond to are the shortened telomeres. 1.2. Predation, which is death caused by a predator feeding on its prey.# 1.2.1. The stimulus that the organism (prey) does not respond and cannot respond to is the other organism (its predator). 1.3. Malnutrition, which is death caused by a lack of proper nutrition.## 1.3.1 The stimulus that the organism does not respond to and cannot respond to is its diet; this is because it is dead because of malnutrition. 1.4. Disease, which is death caused by an abnormal condition. 1.4.1. The stimulus that the organism does not respond to and cannot respond to is its disease because the disease has killed the organism. 1.5. Suicide, which is death caused by oneself.# 1.5.1. The stimulus that the organism does not respond to and cannot respond to is its own self because it has taken its own ‘life’; its ability to behave to stimulus; the organism does not behave to the poison because it is dead. 1.6. Homicide, which is death caused by another organism.# 1.6.1. The stimulus that the organism does not respond to and cannot respond to is its own killer because, the organism is dead. 1.7. Starvation, which is death caused by a lack of food. 1.7.1. The stimulus that the organism does not respond to and cannot respond to is the food, this is because the organism is dead. 1.8. Dehydration, which is death caused by a lack of water.# 1.8.1 The stimulus that the organism does not respond to and cannot respond to is the water, this is because the organism is dead; it has lost its ability to respond to a stimulus (water). 1.9. Accidents, which is death caused by the environment. 1.9.1 The stimulus that the organism does not respond to and cannot respond to is the environment, this is because the organism is dead and is unable to respond to its environment.

Conclusion (chapter 11) Some parts of the argument that were not talked about. 1. A patient and an organism can coincide within the same system such that a patient is someone that receives medical treatment whereas an organism can also receive medical treatment but mainly exists as a system composed of organ systems; organ systems can receive medical treatment and so can the whole system of organ systems which is an organism; I will use patient in the following propositions to keep consistency with medicine.# 1. Coma patients have non-cognitive capacities such as being able to breathe on their own. 1.1. If coma patients cannot breathe on their own with the aid of life support systems#, then there is still blood circulation which shows that the patient is clinically alive. 2. Coma patients have non-cognitive capacities such as blood circulation. 2.1. If coma patients cannot circulate blood on their own with the aid of life support systems#, then there is still metabolism which shows that the patient is alive. 3. Coma patients also have a metabolism which means that the patient can respond to internal stimulus. 4. Plants have perception. 4.1. These organisms can respond to their environment to adjust their phenotype.# 4.1.1. Plants can detect chemicals. 4.1.2. Plants can detect gravity. 4.1.3. Plants can detect light. 4.1.4. Plants can detect moisture. 4.1.5. Plants can detect infections. 4.1.6. Plants can detect temperature. 4.1.7. Plants can detect oxygen. 4.1.8. Plants can detect carbon dioxide concentrations. 4.1.9. Plants can detect parasite infestation. 4.1.10. Plants can detect disease. 4.1.11. Plants can detect disruption. 4.1.12. Plants can detect sound##. 4.1.13. Plants can detect touch. 4.2. If an organism can perceive these types of sensations (and other types of sensations) then, these organisms also can have behaviours to particular stimuli such as homeostasis or metabolism; it would also mean that they have the ability to be alive because they can have behaviour to a particular stimulus. 5. Viruses have neither organelles nor organs so therefore they cannot be organisms. 5.1. If viruses lack either of these they can still have responses to particular stimulus but (such as an organism’s immune system), they cannot be life because they lack the systems that are composite of an organism. 6. This is also a thesis that I had created on my own without any guiding hand from other thinkers; even if when I did some research after to see if other scientists created the same conclusion, they in fact did not create the same conclusion but said that a key characteristic of life is that an organism behaves to its stimulus. I believe what makes this paper unique is that it ultimately argues for the fact that life is an organism that behaves to a stimulus; even if an organism has other key features to life such as reproduction and homeostasis, I believe that the reason for these being able to exist is because the organism responds to a stimulus; gametes responding to chromosomes and an organism’s internal environment being able to respond to a stimulus such as temperature to continue a balanced internal state.

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Cell Movements and the Shaping of the Vertebrate Body in Chapter 21 of Molecular Biology of the Cell fourth edition, edited by Bruce Alberts (2002) published by Garland Science. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos. It is also common to describe small molecules such as amino acids as "molecular building blocks".

Cammack, Richard; Teresa Atwood; Attwood, Teresa K.; Campbell, Peter Scott; Parish, Howard I.; Smith, Tony; Vella, Frank; Stirling, John (2006), Oxford dictionary of biochemistry and molecular biology, Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-852917-1

Kimball, John W (2012) “Cell Membranes”.

Singleton P (1999). Bacteria in Biology, Biotechnology and Medicine (5th ed.). New York: Wiley. ISBN 0-471-98880-4.

Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, et al. (2002). Molecular Biology of the Cell (4th ed.). New York: Garland Science. ISBN 0-8153-3218-1.

NC State University. "Prokaryotes: Single-celled Organisms".

Individuals, populations and communities (Third edition). Blackwell Science, London. ISBN 0-86542-845-X, ISBN 0-632-03801-2, ISBN 0-632-04393-8.

"malnutrition" at Dorland's Medical Dictionary

Begon, M., Townsend, C., Harper, J. (1996). Ecology: Facts for life (PDF) (4th ed.). New York: United Nations Children's Fund. 2010. pp. 61 and 75. ISBN 978-92-806-4466-1.

Stedman's Medical Dictionary (28th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2006. ISBN 978-0-7817-3390-8.

"Homicide definition". Cornell University Law School. Retrieved 22 April 2014.

Mange K; Matsuura D; Cizman B; et al. (1997). "Language guiding therapy: the case of dehydration versus volume depletion". Ann. Intern. Med. 127 (9): 848–53. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-127-9-199711010-00020. PMID 9382413.

Young, G.B. (2009). "Coma". Ann. New York Acad. Sci. 1157 (1): 32–47. Bibcode:2009NYASA1157...32Y. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04471.x.

Trewavas, A. (2005). "Green plants as intelligent organisms". Trends in Plant Science. 10 (9): 413–419. doi:10.1016/j.tplants.2005.07.005. PMID 16054860.

Mishra, Ratnesh Chandra; Ghosh, Ritesh; Bae, Hanhong (2016-08-01). "Plant acoustics: in the search of a sound mechanism for sound signaling in plants". Journal of Experimental Botany. 67 (15): 4483–4494. doi:10.1093/jxb/erw235. ISSN 0022-0957.

Bailey, N. W.; Fowler-Finn, K. D.; Rebar, D.; Rodriguez, R. L. (2013). "Green symphonies or wind in the willows? Testing acoustic communication in plants". Behavioral Ecology. 24 (4): 797–798. doi:10.1093/beheco/ars228.

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