User:Jenct93/Affective disposition theory

Horror and drama from movie's, television from any era can use Affective Disposition Theory for analysis on good vs evil characters.

A retail display of video games at a Manor department store in Geneva, Switzerland. Popular and accessible use of video games is often analyzed in Affective Disposition Theory. Photographed by user Coolcaesar.

Enjoyment of sports, and fans can be applied to Affective Disposition theory based the enjoyment of rooting for sports teams. Allegiance to a team is one of Raney's theories of sports media motivation for watching and following teams as a fan.

In the Affective Disposition Theory, people consistently evaluate their level of satisfaction based on the moral judgments they attribute to the characters or plot of a story. This theory asserts that our morals, emotions, and behavior are vital in determining whether we agree or disagree with the story or its characters. Zillmann and Cantor first proposed this theory in 1977 and it has since been widely applied to various traditional media formats, such as books, plays, television, and movies.

Application of Theory original [edit]

The creator of any narrative can use Disposition Theory to heighten emotional arousal, and therefore enjoyment, in any narrative. Creating a strong disposition towards the characters will lead the viewer to hope for a positive outcome for the hero and a negative outcome for the villain, all the while fearing a negative outcome for the hero and fearing a positive outcome for the villain. By delaying this outcome, the writer can create suspense in the viewer. By creating suspense, the writer can heighten emotional arousal and, therefore, heighten enjoyment of the narrative. In summation, by creating a strong disposition towards characters, a writer can heighten the audience's enjoyment of the narrative.

Zillmann's Model of forming dispositions[edit]

Dolf Zillmann (1996) offered a model of disposition formation. The model begins with a character's behavior and ends with approval of the story. There are seven main steps in disposition formation:

1. Perception and Assessment – In this step, the viewer simply observes the act of the character.
2. Moral Judgment – The viewer judges the action of the character as either appropriate and moral or inappropriate and amoral. Here, the model splits paths. If the viewer believes the act to be amoral, disposition formation takes a strikingly different route than if the viewer believes the act to be moral and appropriate. From here, the moral route will be referred to as moral and the amoral route will be referred to as amoral.
3. Affective Disposition – Here, if the viewer decides the character is following the moral route, they begin to form positive affect toward that character. The opposite is true if the viewer decides the character is following the amoral route.
4. Anticipation and Apprehension – Here, the viewer hopes for a positive outcome and fears a negative outcome for the moral character while fearing a positive outcome and hoping for a negative outcome for the amoral character.
5. Perception and Assessment – The outcome is viewed and an emotion is attached.
6. Response to Outcome/Emotion – The viewer decides how they feel about the story and characters.
7. Moral Judgment – The viewer decides if they approve of the outcome of the story or disapprove of it.

This model further illuminates the disposition process. As stated earlier, if a story incites a strong disposition toward any character, viewer enjoyment is likely to be higher due to the emotional arousal created by the narrative. Through this model, one can pinpoint where and how a disposition is created. This model also displays the steps the viewer goes through to create a disposition.

Raney's Contributions to the Theory History and Application

Disposition theory has multiple applications in many areas of entertainment. Its most basic premise is that entertainment users attach an emotion to various characters within a narrative, but this has been expanded to comedy, drama, tragedy, violence, and sport (Raney, 2006a). Although some theorist argue that the similar theories used to explore different forms of entertainment media encompass the same general processes, some evidence exists that disposition formation may differ across content. Sapolsky's research (1980) found that viewer race rather than the previously mentioned "morality" was an accurate predictor in team favorability in an all-White versus all-Black basketball game. With regard to antihero narratives, researchers such as Sapolsky have suggested that the actual formation process of dispositions may differ from the traditional affective disposition theory formula. The traditional Disposition Theory is closely related to misattribution theory of humor. Disposition Theory takes the position that entertainment users are just an audience, they are not active. By employing this perspective, the audience does not experience real emotion towards the events in the narrative, but rather experience suspense instead. Traditional Disposition Theory is most often applied in the context of humor, but is also applicable to drama and sports.

Raney (2006a) offered six principles that are shared amongst all applications of disposition theory:

1. "Disposition-based theories are concerned with the enjoyment or appreciation of media content." (pg. 144)
2. "Disposition-based theories are concerned with emotional responses to media content." (pg. 145)
3. "Disposition-based theories contend that media enjoyment starts with and is driven by the viewer's feelings about the character." (pg. 145)
4. "Disposition-based theories contend that affiliations towards characters are formed and maintained on a continuum from extreme positive through indifference to extreme negative affect." (pg. 146)
5. "Because disposition-based theories rely upon the evaluation of conflict outcomes between characters, justice consideration are a necessary component of the theories." (pg. 147)
6. "Disposition-based theories further acknowledge and rely upon the differences between individuals in terms of emotional responsiveness, personal experiences, basal morality, and countless other psychological and social-psychological factors." (pg. 147)

As stated earlier, disposition theories can be applied in many contexts, but most share similar characteristics, as identified by Raney (2006). In summation, these six principles are strongly centered around the ideas of enjoyment of entertainment and emotional responses. These theories can be used to formulate narratives and create drama and emotional arousal during a story. Using these six principles, one can surmise that creating a strong and opposing disposition for the characters in the story will lead to greater enjoyment for the viewer. By making a villain's actions terribly amoral, and the hero's actions extremely moral, one can create emotional arousal in a viewer.

Applied to sports spectatorship[edit]

The concepts of the traditional affective disposition theory have been applied to sports media consumption by considering the fact that enjoyment could be conceived as the emotional response to consuming media surrounding players or teams. The exploration of enjoyment of sport spectatorship is very complex and must take into account fan socialization and disposition formation. Research on fan socialization investigates how people are originally socialized as sports fans, and also examines the reasons why people form allegiances towards specific teams. Raney (2006b) states that these allegiances and types of socializations are at the core of the entertainment motivation for viewing sports media.

The specific version of the disposition theory that is used in sport media viewing (Disposition Theory of Sport Spectatorship) applies the basic ideas of the disposition theory to sports content. The basic premise that is used to cross over into the world of sport is that enjoyment of entertainment is primarily a reflection of both the consumers' feelings toward the players or teams and the outcomes (Zillmann, 1991, 2000; Zillmann & Cantor, 1977; Raney, 2004a, 2004b; Raney, 2006b; Peterson & Raney, 2008). Raney (2006b) also found that the expectation of experiencing enjoyment is the greatest reason that sports media viewers report for why they consume sports media.

According to academic researchers and theorist (Bryant & Raney, 2000; Zillmann, Bryant & Sapolsky, 1989; Zillmann & Paulus, 1993), the Disposition Theory of Sports Spectatorship states that a viewer's affiliation or allegiance to a particular team or player must be discussed along a continuum. This continuum ranges from extremely positive through indifference to extremely negative.

Raney (2006b) posits that the enjoyment of viewing a sporting event comes as a by-product of a combination of the outcome of the game, and the viewers strength and valence of dispositions held toward the competitors. Exposure to the competitors over time allows individuals to develop these dispositions of varying valence and degree toward teams and athletes. In more simplistic terms, the enjoyment of the spectator or viewer has been found to increase the more the winning team is favored by the spectator/viewer and the more the losing team is disliked by the spectator/viewer. Henceforth, the maximum enjoyment of the spectator comes when the intensely liked team or player defeats the intensely disliked team or player.

Additionally, research indicates that sports fanship in general is important to enjoyment of sports media. Specifically, Gantz & Wenner (1991, 1995) found that the selective exposure to media and motivations for viewing sports media literatures indicate that fanship in relation to the particular sport also impacts perceptions about the contest. Therefore, the argument can be made that this level of dispositional affiliation toward the sport might also impact perceived suspense and enjoyment.

Raney and Depalma (2006) also noted that the nature of the sport being view, either scripted or unscripted, cause viewers to approach the sporting event with differing expectations of enjoyment. The uncertainty of outcomes for contests that are unscripted when combined with multiple other factors such as rivalry strength and importance of the game to the overall ranking of the team affect the suspense and enjoyment of viewing.

Media Uses of Affective Disposition Theory

Antiheroes – This uses Affective Disposition Theory to justify liking a flawed character doing something accepted for other moral reasons. The actions of an immoral character can be rationalized by explaining their behavior to understand and take the character's actions, even if it was theft or violence. Exploring the role of identification and moral disengagement in the enjoyment of an antihero television series.

Cautionary Tales - Applies to Affective Disposition Theory with fairy tales or risks associated with everyday life issues. This can be applied as a fear appeal: bad things will happen if you do not do this approved action. Other applications include after-school specials or other cautionary tales on disease prevention or mixed into your popular shows as a special message or warning. The narrative warns of harm if the public does not follow instructions for safety.   

Character Development or Drama – according to the Affective Disposition Theory, a character's perception is based on whether the viewer likes them and their decisions. If a character is not developed or planned in a way they want, the resulting opinion effect of the character is undetermined based on liking or dislike. The moral piece is needed for people to have a positive or negative outcome of a dramatic presentation or personality in the plot. This leads to the importance of moral judgment, and a story outcome is needed for a story to be liked or disliked.

Emotional Processing – Applied to works of fiction, this allows a reader to constantly judge and process the main characters based on moral choices of good and evil to determine and, based on the moral judgment, infer that information on the characters' moral ethics is they are good or bad. If the character exhibits negative behaviors, the hatred for the character expands, and l likewise, honest characters are seen as good as their behavior supports the viewer's judgment. 

Entertainment education – The application of stories where the television show or media add a moral or planned lesson to change public opinion using regular show programming to become educational for the topic of choice.  This could be an “Afternoon Special Program or work into a storyline of a regularly programmed show with the cooperation of the network producers like a Public Service Announcement built into the story itself.

eSports – as with Sports enjoyment, eSports fits with Affective Disposition Theory as a new entertainment source and venues are growing. These eSports events, where video gamers and teams sell out mainstream arenas, are leading a new application of ADT, allowing video gamers to compete professionally on a large-scale market against other well-known teams in that industry. This sector grows with significant investment from Amazon and other video game companies, universities, and sports teams. The hero vs villain and the drama of knowing the participants and rooting for teams and heroes apply.

Humor – falls into Affective Disposition Theory with comedies such as Saturday Night Live hosting a Presidential Debate between Presidential nominees Donald Trump and Hilary Clinton. Since 1975, Saturday Night Live has hosted parodies for political campaigns. The measurement of mirth is used to measure enjoyment or displeasure in both candidates as good and evil. Humor is also used in other comedic enterprises—the results of laughter at jokes about or referencing the comedic narrative.

Mood Management – Zillmann theorized that people enjoy rooting for their character to succeed and be rewarded, and thus, villains not to be rewarded for their misdeeds. Applying this process allows the media consumer to benefit from mood management. The consumer can experience mood alternating from consuming content that follows the expected outcomes.  Any story where a character overcomes the challenge can be applicable, including in news broadcasts, movies, television, sports, or books. Suspense and sports also apply in the mood management subtext.

Moral Judgement - is when characters get prescribed outcomes from moral judgment to the hero or antagonist. The character will be likelier if the hero proceeds in the anticipated moral reaction. Conversely, if the antagonist is penalized, justice is served morally, and the surface will feature the desired moral judgment punishment.

Schema - is the process where everything we learn from birth forms the viewers' opinion on life experiences and becomes existing knowledge as the viewer analyzes the characters to see if they are good or bad.  This allows for a previous bias to sculpt the viewer's opinion on good vs bad based on history, even if the viewer was not there to witness actual events portrayed. This is also where the preconceived notion of heroes or those being good are in white or light-colored clothing, whereas villains are dark, and their clothing reflects their lousy behavior.

References

• Bryant, J., & Raney, A. A. (2000). Sports on the screen. In D. Zillmann & P. Vorderer (Eds.), Media entertainment: The psychology of its appeal (pp. 153–174). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
• Gantz, W., & Wenner, L. A. (1991). Men, women, and sports: Audience experiences and effects. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 35, 233–243.
• Gantz, W., & Wenner, L. A. (1995). Fanship and the television sports viewing experience. Sociology of Sports Journal, 12, 56–74.
• Peterson, E. M., & Raney, A. A. (2008). Reconceptualizing and Reexamining Suspense as a Predictor of Mediated Sports Enjoyment. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 52(4), 544–562.
• Raney, A. A. (2004). Expanding disposition theory: Reconsidering character liking, moral evaluations, and enjoyment. Communication Theory, 14(4), 348–369.
• Raney, A. A. (2006a). The psychology of disposition-based theories of media enjoyment. In J. Bryant & P. Vorderer (Eds.), Psychology of entertainment (pp. 137–150). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
• Raney, A. A. (2006b). Why We Watch and Enjoy Mediated Sports. In A. A. Raney, J. Bryant (Eds.), Handbook of sports and media (pp. 313–329). Mahwah, NJ US: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
• Raney, A. A., & Depalma, A. J. (2006). The Effect of Viewing Varying Levels and Contexts of Violent Sports Programming on Enjoyment, Mood, and Perceived Violence. Mass Communication & Society, 9(3), 321–338.
• Sapolsky, B. S. (1980). The effect of spectator disposition and suspense on the enjoyment of sport contests. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 11, 1–10.
• Vorderer, P, & Knobloch, S. (2000). Conflict and suspense in drama. In D. Zillmann, & P. Vorderer (Eds.), Media entertainment: The psychology of its appeal (pp. 56–68). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• Zillmann, D., & Cantor, J. (1977). Affective responses to the emotions of a protagonist. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 13(2), 155–165.
• Zillmann, D., (1991). Television viewing and psychological arousal. In J. Bryant D. Zillmann (Eds.), Responding to the screen: Reception and reaction process (pp. 103–133). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• Zillmann, D., (2000). Mood management in the context of selective exposure theory. In M. E. Roloff (Ed.), Communication Yearbook 23 (pp. 103–123). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
• Zillmann, D., Bryant, J., & Sapolsky, B. (1989). Enjoyment of watching Sport Contests. In J.H. Goldstein (Ed.), Sports, Games, and play: Social and Psychological Viewpoints (2nd ed., pp. 241–287). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• Zillmann, D., & Paulus, P. B. (1993). Spectators: Reactions to sporting events and effects on athletic performance. In R. N. Singer, M. Murphey, & L. K. Tennant (Eds.), Handbook of research on sports psychology (pp. 600–699). New York: Macmillan.
• Zillmann, D. (1996). The psychology of suspense in dramatic exposition. In P. Vorderer, W. J. Wulff, & M. Friedrichsen (Eds.), Suspense: conceptualizations, theoretical analyses, and empirical explorations (pp 199–231). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
• Zillmann, D.; Cantor (1972). "Directionality of transitory dominance as a communication variable affecting humor appreciation". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 24 (2): 191–198. doi:10.1037/h0033384. PMID 5081191