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Emerging Issues in Canadian Arctic Governance

Emerging Issues in Canadian Arctic Governance comprise of a series of forthcoming economic, environmental, political and social challenges facing current and future politicians in Canada. In particular, the effects of Climate Change have exacerbated the rate at which Arctic ice pack is melting, generating the possibility that old sea ice formations will no longer obstruct the waterways of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, collectively known as the Northwest Passage, in the coming decades.

The increasing viability of transiting the Arctic Circle by way of the Northwest Passage has industry involved in commercial shipping, tourism and resource development calling on the Canadian government to amend or introduce new legislation that will enable those in these industries to capitalize on the Arctic Circle’s vast and untapped potential.

Concerns over the private sector’s calls for increased access to conduct business operations freely in the Canadian Arctic has environmentalists, foreign policy experts, and scientists alike also calling on the Canadian government to bring Canadian arctic policy into the twenty-first century, but this time to ensure it adequately addresses concerns about environmental protection and sustainability, economic development and prosperity and the sovereignty and security of Canada.

Climate Change as a Contributory Factor

The Arctic ecosystem plays a vital role in the regulation of the Earth’s weather, but ongoing changes in climate patterns threaten to destroy this sensitive region. Surface air temperatures in the Arctic have dramatically increased since modern record keeping began in 1880, resulting in an average annual temperature change that is twice as high in the Arctic than anywhere else in the world. With the rise of surface air temperatures in the Arctic occurring more frequently as time goes on, the Arctic Cryosphere has undergone significant alterations in both its physical and ecological composition.

The Arctic Cryosphere is the scientific term that refers to the area of the Earth’s surface that remains frozen seasonally. The geographical properties of the Arctic Cryosphere include snow, frozen ground (tundra), river and lake ice, glaciers, ice caps and sea ice. The Arctic Cryosphere performs a major service to the world’s temperature regulation by reflecting the majority of the Sun’s thermal radiation back into space. With large portions of the Arctic region experiencing an accelerated melting of its ground and sea ice coverage in recent decades, this essential regulatory function of the Arctic ecosystem is hindered. 

Being that the Albedo of the ground and sea ice coverage is reduced every time the highly reflective surface area melts, the Arctic stands to become more accessible to human interaction and intrusion. 

The Economic Potential of Canada's Arctic

Driven in part by the increasing demand for resources (like oil and gas) and raw materials (such as iron, nickel and uranium) from the emerging economies of Brazil, China and India, interest in capitalizing on the region’s potential has grown considerably in recent years. In the last decade the Canadian government has started to issue offshore exploration permits to multinational oil companies like Exxon and British Petroleum, underscoring the reality that the Arctic region is already in the industry’s crosshairs. This is unsurprising given that it is estimated that the Arctic Circle possesses 30 percent of the world’s untouched gas reserves and 13 percent of the world’s oil reserves.

It is also estimated that the discovery of new resources in the Artic is predicted to draw an increase in the number of ships that transit through the region, carrying these new resources to Europe and Asia. The accelerating rate at which sea ice is melting, especially during the summer, has increased the viability of utilizing the Northwest Passage as an alternative to existing shipping routes that go through the Suez and Panama Canals. For example, a trip from London, England to Yokohama, Japan is 15,700km shorter when using the Northwest Passage compared to current alternatives.

In a survey of interested industry professionals, the most common concern was that the current market that Arctic routes serve is small and therefore they face fierce competition with companies that have been operating in the region for quite sometime. The extreme temperatures, dangerous weather and unpredictability that Arctic routes currently face are also barriers that industry professionals have pointed out.

Presently, maritime traffic in the Canadian Arctic has been limited to small-scale fishing and tourism ventures along with periodic replenishment trips made by cargo vessels supplying northern communities. However, the region stands to see a considerable increase in maritime traffic in the coming years as old sea ice formations melt and open up waterways that have been traditionally impassable by commercial ships.

Arctic cruise tourism in Canada’s North is also expected to increase in size and frequency in the coming decades. The allure of visiting sites of historical significance, seeing wildlife and learning about Indigenous culture makes Canada an internationally renowned destination for this type of activity. This trend can be witness by the fact that the number of declinational trips made by Arctic cruise companies in Canadian waters has more than tripled since 2005. 

Canada's Arctic Foreign Policy

Canada’s Northern Strategy, established by the Conservative Government of Stephen Harper in 2009 set forth a modern framework for foreign policy in the Arctic. The strategy outlines “Canada’s priorities with respect to sovereignty, economic and social development, environmental protection, and governance” with a strong focus on ensuring Canadian interests and values are maintained.

i. Sovereignty Rights

Recognizing the new opportunities created by climate change and the private sector’s push for development, the government still maintains a cautious view in regard to the challenges facing its Arctic policy governance. 

The first and foremost priority of the Government of Canada’s Northern Strategy is ensuring that the sovereignty of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago is continuously enforced and recognized by international governments. Outlined in the Northern Strategy, exercising Canadian sovereignty begins with resolving international boundary disputes with Denmark and the United States, in accordance with international law. Sovereignty will also be ensured through the international recognition of Canada’s authority over the Arctic continental shelf, which extends beyond the traditional 200 nautical mile exclusive economic zone. International recognition of Canada’s sovereign right to access the minerals and resources within the seabed and subsoil of the continental shelf is essential to the interests of the government and the various indigenous communities that are situated along the Arctic coast.

The aforementioned Northern Strategy also affirms the Government of Canada’s commitment toward international cooperation through institutions like the United Nations and the Arctic Council when dealing with concerns of regional governance. Maintaining public safety, especially as the region becomes more accessible, is a matter of national interest to the Canadian government. Canada will look to its Arctic partners to develop multilateral agreements that address public safety responsibilities such as search and rescue and emergency responses to environmental accidents or criminal acts. 

Operations conducted by the Canadian Armed Forces, the Canadian Coast Guard, and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, are examples of how the Government of Canada enforces Canadian laws and regulations in the Arctic just like they do across the country.