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The Arab Congress of 1913 met in Paris to discuss reforms to grant Arabs more autonomy under the Ottoman Empire. It took place at a time of uncertainty and change in the Ottoman Empire in the years leading up to World War I. The Empire had undergone a revolution and a coup by the Young Turks in 1908. Arabs were agitating for more rights under the fading empire and early glimmers of Arab nationalism were emerging. A number of dissent and reform-oriented groups formed in Syria, Palestine, Constantinople, and Egypt. Zionist immigration to Palestine was increasing, and England and France were expressing interest in the region, competing for spheres of influence.

It was under these conditions that a group of students living in Paris called for a Congress to be held to discuss proposed Arab reforms. While the Congress was not ultimately successful in its proposed aims, it was a reflection of events taking place and dynamics that shaped the early 20th century for three continents before The Great War began. Many scholars place the origins of Arab nationalism during these crucial years that witnessed a dwindling of empires.

Ottoman empire

The Ottoman Empire was in a state of decline at the beginning of the 20th century. In 1908, a revolt led by the Young Turks led to regime change. Attempts by the regime to contain Western influence, implement an increasingly centralized government, and movement toward the "Turkification" of Arab lands prompted resistance from parts of the Arab world. War broke out in the Balkans in October 1912, further weakening Istanbul's hold over its domain. (N)

Arab nationalism

Scholars disagree over when exactly Arab nationalism began, but there were glimmers of a distinctive Arab identity beginning to form, partly in response to perceived Ottoman oppression, in the years leading up to the Arab Congress. Particular concerns included the desire to speak Arabic in the public sphere, a decentralized administration (i.e. more local control over administrative matters), and the right for Arab soldiers to serve in their own region, rather than a distant corner of the empire.

Reform organizations

A number of reform-minded groups sprung up in these early years before [World War I]. Many remained secret so as to avoid government infiltration.

• The Young Arab Society, "Al Fateh," (Paris, 1911)
  • called for the Arab congress in order to "demonstrate the unity and strength of the Arab movement" as well as to discuss reforms (Thomas)
  • members: Abd al-Ghani al-Uraysi, Jamil Mardam, and Awni Abd al-Hadi, among others

• Arab League Society, "Jam'iyyat al-Jami'a al-'Arabiyya," (Cairo, 1910)
  • Rashid Rida, founder (N)
  • secret reform society whose goal was "to promote and safeguard Arab rights." (N)

• Beirut Reform Society, "Jam'iyyat Beirut al-'Islahiyya," (Beirut, 1912)
  • sent delegation to Paris conference
  • members: Ahmad Bayhum, among others

• Ottoman Decentralisation Party (Cairo, 1912)

• Al Ahd, “The Covenant” (1914)
  • 'Aziz 'Ali, founder
  • supported unity between Arabs and Turks
  • largely consisted of army officers
  • supported a “call for Arab independence...respect for Islamic values...and the institution of the Caliphate.” (ayyad)

• Ligue de la Patrie Arabe, "League of Arab Patriots," (1904, Paris)
  • founded by Najib Azuri
  • goal was to free Syria and Iraq from Turkey

• Committee of Union and Progress (CUP)

• Literary Society, "al-Muntada al-Adabi," (Istanbul)
  • 'Abd al-Karim al-Khalil, president
  • as many as 1000 members (N)
  • composed of Arab expatriots in Istanbul
  • al-Khalil was executed for treason in 1915

Zionist immigration

Jewish immigrants had begun arriving in historic Palestine before 1900. By 1913 there was concern among Arab communities that the Zionist settlers desired to settle Arab lands at the exclusion of the Arabs.

Foreign influence

England and France were showing interest in the region as the two empires competed with one another for influence. Scholar David Thomas contends that many of the reform groups that participated in the conference "...were more suspicious of the intentions of Britain and France in the Levant than afraid of and hostile to the Ottoman Porte..."

Congress timeline

• April 4, 1913: Al-Fatat invites the Ottoman Decentralization Party to send delegates to the Congress.
• May 30, 1913: Delegates from several groups begin to arrive in Paris.
• June 18, 1913: Congress begins.
• June 23, 1913: Congress ends.

Attendees (incomplete list)

While there were 25 "official" delegates, many representatives of reform societies attended unofficially. The following is a partial list comprised of both official and unofficial individuals:

• Victor Jacobson, Zionist representative
• Sami Hochberg, Zionist representative
• Shaykh Ahmed Hassan Tabbara
• Rizq Allah Arqash (from Beirut Reform Society)
• Daud Barakat
• Khalil Zaiyniyya
• Cumberbatch (?)
• Mahbub al-Shartuni (unofficial)
• Ayyub Thabit
• Abd al-Karim al-Khalil (official delegate but did not attend sessions)
• Abd al-Hamid al-Zahrawi (elected president of Congress)
• Shukri Ghanim (elected vice-president of Congress)
• Abd al-Ghani al-Uraysi
• Nadrah Matran, a Christian Arab

Aftermath

Executions

A couple of participants were executed in 1915-16 by the Turks for treason.

World War I

The Congress did not have a lasting effect, due in no small part to the beginning of War I. Many of the concerns addressed at the Congress were decided as parts of larger shifts of power during the War.

Bibliography

Antonius, George. 2001. The Arab Awakening. Safety Harbor, FL: Simon Publications.

Ayyad, Abdelaziz A. 1999. Arab Nationism and the Palestinians, 1850-1939. Jerusalem: Passia.

Kayali, Hasan. 1997. Arabs and Young Turks, Ottomanism, Arabism, and Islamism in the Ottoman Empire, 1908-1918. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Khalidi, Rashid. 1980. British Policy towards Syria and Palestine 1906-1914, a study of the antcedents of the Hussein-McMahon correspondence, the Sykes-Picot Agreement, and the Balfour Declaration. London: Ithaca Press.

Khalidi, Rashid. Palestinian Identity: The Construction of Modern National Consciousness. Columbia University Press, NY, 2010.

Mandel, Neville. 1965. Attempts at an Arab-Zionist Entente: 1913-1914. Middle Eastern Studies 1 (3):238-267.

Mandel, Neville. 1976. The Arabs and Zionism Before World War I. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Marcus, Amy Dockser. 2007. Jerusalem 1913: The Origins of the Arab-Israeli Conflict. New York: Viking.

Matthews, Weldon C. 2006. Confronting an Empire, Constructing a Nation: Arab Nationalists and Popular Politics in Mandate Palestine. London: I.B. Tauris.

Nafi, Basheer M. 1998. Arabism, Islamism, and the Palestine Question 1908-1941, a Political History. Reading, United Kingdom: Ithaca Press.

Thomas, David S. 1976. The First Arab Congress and the Committee of Union and Progress, 1913-1914. In "Essays on Islamic Civilization", ed. Donald P. Little. Leiden, Netherlands: E.J. Brill.

Tibi, Bassam. 1981. Arab Nationalism: A Critical Enquiry. New York: St. Martin's Press.

External Websites

http://admusallam.bethlehem.edu/publications/EndofTheOttomanEra.htm

http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft7n39p1dn;chunk.id=s2.4.4;doc.view=print

http://www.marxists.org/subject/arab-world/lutsky/ch25.htm “The First Arab Congress” section

http://www.passia.org/publications/research_studies/books/arab_nationalism/arabresist.html

http://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/British_Imperial_Connexions_to_the_Arab_National_Movement

http://www.cambridge.org/us/archive_ed_pdf/9781852076108.pdf