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Ava–Hanthawaddy War (1408–1418)
Part of the Forty Years' War
DateMarch 1408 – late 1418
Location
Result Hanthawaddy and coalition victory
Territorial
changes
Belligerents

Ava

Hanthawaddy Pegu

China and its client states (1412–1415)

Commanders and leaders
Strength
Southern Theater[note 1]
    • 1408: 26,000 infantry; 2200 cavalry; 100 elephants
    • 1409–10: 14,000+; 1400; 100[c]
    • 1410: 15,000; 600; 40
    • 1412–13: 6000+; ?; ?
    • 1414–15: 22,000+; 600+; 80+
    • 1415: 5 regiments
    • 1416: 8000; 400; 30
    • 1417–18: 16,000; 700; 40
Western Theater
    • 1408: 300+; ?; ?[c]
    • 1411: 10,000+; 1000+; ~100
    • 1411–12: 8000+; 300+; 30+
    • 1416: 1 garrison
Northern Theater
    • 1412: 7000; 400; 20[c]
    • 1413–14: 8000; 400; 30
    • 1414–15: ?
Southern Theater[note 1]
    • 1408: 8000 infantry; 300 cavalry; 60 elephants
    • 1409–10: 8000+; 400+; 90+[c]
    • 1410: 3+ regiments; 2 flotillas
    • 1412–13: 12,000; 800; 30
    • 1414–15: 10,000+; ?; ?
    • 1415: ?
    • 1416: 7000; 500; 30+
    • 1417–18: ?
Western Theater
    • 1408: 4000+; ?; 20+[c]
    • 1411: 5000+; 200; 50
    • 1411–12: 5000+; 200; 50
    • 1416: ?
Northern Theater
    • 1412: 20,000+; 2000+; ?[c]
    • 1413–14: ?
    • 1414–15: ?
Casualties and losses
Total unknown Total unknown
See Orders of battle for the Ava–Hanthawaddy War (1408–1410), (1410–1412), (1412–1414), (1414–1415), and (1416–1418) for more information.

The Ava–Hanthawaddy War (1408–1418) (Burmese: အင်းဝ–ဟံသာဝတီ စစ် (၁၄၀၈–၁၄၁၈)) was a military conflict between Ava and Hanthawaddy Pegu that lasted from 1408 to 1418. It was the third of the decades-long wars between the two kingdoms, both located in present-day Myanmar.

Background

[edit]

This was the third war between Ava and Hanthawaddy Pegu. In the first two wars, each kingdom had tried to take advantage of the other's succession crisis. In the first war (1385–1391), King Swa Saw Ke of Ava unsuccessfully tried to replace the new king of Hanthawaddy, Razadarit, with his own nominee.[1][2] In the second war (1401–1403), it was Razadarit that unsuccessfully tried to gain the submission of Ava's new king Minkhaung I.[3][4]

Minkhaung emerged stronger after the second war. Not only was he able to negotiate a favorable peace treaty that obliged Pegu to supply 30 elephants and custom revenues of the port of Bassein (Pathein) annually[5][6] but he had also finally gained the support of his vassals, many of whom had offered only lukewarm support for much of the war. Minkhaung began using his newfound power almost immediately. Ava went on to take over its neighboring Shan states to the east and the north: Onbaung (1404/05), Yatsauk and Nyaungshwe (1405/06),[7] and Bhamo and Mohnyin (1406).[7][8]

Ava's acquisition spree alarmed its neighbors. In August 1406, the Ming court dispatched an embassy to Ava (Inwa), ordering to Ava to end its "aggression" against the Shan states, which it considered Chinese tributaries.[8] At Pegu, according to the Razadarit Ayedawbon chronicle, the concern was much higher.[9] Razadarit had long been wary about Ava's potential threat since the waning days of the second war,[10] and c. October/November 1406,[note 2] he received what his court believed to be credible intelligence that Ava was planning to invade Launggyet Arakan next and Pegu afterwards.[9] (To be sure, the main chronicles—the Maha Yazawin, Yazawin Thit and Hmannan Yazawin— which primarily narrate from the Ava side, do not corroborate the Razadarit's account; they say Pegu became Ava's target only after Pegu had attacked Ava forces in Arakan in 1408.[note 3])

At any rate, Pegu's suspicions were seemingly confirmed shortly after. On 29 November 1406,[note 4] Ava forces led by Minkhaung's son Minye Kyawswa captured Launggyet, the capital of Arakan on the western littoral.[12] In response, Razadarit and his army rushed to Bassein (Pathein) to closely monitor the events across the Arakan border. Ava forces proceeded to capture Sandoway (Thandwe) in southern Arakan. Although Ava forces did not cross the border, the Pegu court was now convinced that Pegu was indeed next.[11]

Prelude to war

[edit]

Razadarit removed the veneer of friendly relations with Ava. He readily gave shelter to King Min Saw Mon of Launggyet (and/or Prince Min Khayi).[note 5] The relationship formally turned cold a few months later in 1407 when Razadarit welcomed Minkhaung's younger brother Prince Theiddat, who had defected after being passed over for crown prince, with great fanfare in Pegu.[17][18][19] He also stopped sending the annual shipment of elephants and the annual customs revenues of the port of Bassein.[18][19] The 1403 peace treaty of Kawliya was now null and void. Pegu now expected an Ava invasion after the rainy season, and prepared for war.[11]

However, when the dry season arrived, the anticipated invasion did not come. It turned out that Ava was busy suppressing a serious rebellion in Bhamo. The Hanthawaddy command now deliberated their next steps.[11] Over the next two months, they came to the conclusion that Pegu must act while Ava had its hands full in the north, and that they should start by capturing Arakan, which they believed should be an easier task than taking on Ava's southern districts.[14][20]

In January 1408,[note 6] Razadarit finally authorized the Arakan campaign. The king did not make the decision lightly, as he would be starting a war against a more powerful and populous kingdom. He went to the main pagoda of Pegu,[note 7] and made a solemn prayer there, before issuing the order.[14]

Hanthawaddy conquest of Arakan (1408)

[edit]

Preparations

[edit]

Pegu's general plan was to conquer Arakan swiftly, and bring back the troops immediately afterwards to defend against an inevitable Ava invasion. The battle plan for Arakan called for capturing Sandoway first, enlisting more men from the Sandoway region, and finally attacking Launggyet.[21] An expeditionary force, consisted of two divisions (4000[14] to 5000[22] troops in total), commanded by Smin Paik-Nye and Smin Maw-Khwin, was organized.[14][21] Also included in the force was the dethroned king Min Saw Mon of Launggyet whose presence the Hanthawaddy command believed would entice the local populace to join their side. By late February, the expeditionary force as well as the royal army commanded by Razadarit himself were all massed in Bassein.[21]

Meanwhile, Ava was oblivious to the impending threat. Its main forces were still in Bhamo,[23] and had not reinforced its nominal defenses in Arakan, which consisted of two small garrisons in Launggyet and Sandoway.[21]

Invasion

[edit]
Anawrahta of Lauggyet portrayed as Shwe Nawrahta nat

The invasion began c. early March 1408.[note 8] The Hanthawaddy expeditionary force quickly reached the outskirts of Sandoway. There, they sent a messenger to the city informing that King Min Saw Mon and his ally Hanthawaddy forces had returned to retake the kingdom. The small Ava garrison promptly fled, and Hanthawaddy forces entered the city without a fight.[21]

Launggyet was next. The allied forces—Min Saw Mon now commanded a force of his own—marched to the capital. At Launggyet, the Ava-installed king Anawrahta tried to put up a fight behind the city walls. But it did not work. Three vanguard forces–led by Smin Sam Lek, Smin Lauk Ni-Ye and Min Saw Mon—quickly breached the defenses, and defeated the Ava garrison inside.[21] Anawrahta, his queen Saw Pyei Chantha, and 300 household guards, were taken prisoner.[14][21] Min Saw Mon was restored to the Launggyet throne.[14][23]

Post-invasion developments

[edit]

There was no time to rest. Razadarit immediately recalled most of the expedition force back home (except for a small garrison in Launggyet).[note 9] The captured king and queen of Arakan were also brought back. Razadarit had Anawrahta executed, and made Queen Saw Pyei Chantha, the 16-year-old daughter of Minkhaung, one of his queens.[23][20][27]

The provocations worked. At Ava, a furious Minkhaung ordered an immediate invasion of the southern kingdom. His court was aghast as the rainy season was around the corner. His ministers tried in vain to persuade Minkhaung to delay the campaign until after the rainy season but the king would hear none of it.[25][28]

First Ava invasion of Hanthawaddy (1408)

[edit]
Ava and Hanthawaddy forces fought in Arakan on the western coast and along the Sittaung river near Pegu in 1408–1410.

Ava battle plan

[edit]

The Ava court hastily drew up a plan. Pressed by the soon-to-arrive rainy season, they decided to recruit the eastern kingdom of Lan Na to open a second front from Pegu's east. However, their embassy to Chiang Mai veered into Hanthawaddy border en route to Chiang Mai, and was arrested by Hanthawaddy border guards. Razadarit released the embassy back to Ava, with Minkhaung's letter to the king of Lan Na unsealed.[20][13]

Ava would now have to take on Pegu on its own. By April, the Ava court had mobilized two invasion armies: a vanguard army (22,000 troops, 2000 troops and 80 elephants), and the royal army commanded by Minkhaung himself (4000 troops, 200 cavalry and 20 elephants).[25][29] In order to beat the rains, the Ava command made a risky decision to send both armies via the inland Toungoo (Taungoo) route along the Sittaung river, which represented the shortest path to Pegu but was also far more difficult to supply. The Ava command came up with an elaborate plan to ship the supplies via the Irrawaddy river to Prome (Pyay), and then transport them by land (over 200 km away by modern roads) over dirt roads through the jungles of the Pegu Yoma range, and ultimately to the front.[25][30]

Pegu battle plan

[edit]

The Hanthawaddy defenses were ready—on both the Irrawaddy delta and Sittaung fronts. The general plan was to ambush more numerous Ava troops—which the Hanthawaddy command initially estimated to be 15,000 infantry, 600 cavalry and 60 elephants—along the invasion routes, and defend their fortified towns.[31]

The plan was further adjusted when they learned right before the invasion that the main invasion force would come from Toungoo. Razadarit kept Dein Mani-Yut in Bassein (Pathein) to defend the delta,[32] and assigned Smin Ye-Thin-Yan to guard the capital.[33] The king then marched with his main army (8000 troops, 300 cavalry, 20 elephants) north to Thagyin (Shwegyin), about 100 km northeast of Pegu.[24][25][26] He then deployed a 500-strong vanguard regiment led by Lagun Ein near the border.[34]

Invasion

[edit]

Initial campaign

[edit]

Circa mid April 1408,[note 10] the vanguard units of two Ava armies (26,000 troops, 2200 cavalry, 100 elephants) crossed the border.[24][29] Lagun Ein's regiment promptly ambushed the vanguard units (from the Shan states) but was ultimately driven back by more numerous Ava troops.[34] Though his forces came out on top, Minkhaung was spooked by the losses suffered by his troops, and feared that more such ambushes awaited ahead along the invasion route. He paused the advance, and waited for more troops to arrive for another six days.[35]

Meanwhile, the Hanthawaddy command too was having its own moment of crisis. Based on Lagun Ein's report that Ava vanguard forces alone totaled at least 10,000, they realized that the overall enemy strength was likely much higher, and that their defenses, including the Thagyin fort, probably could not hold out for long.[36] After a lengthy, contentious debate among his senior staff, Razadarit ultimately decided to pull back to their best fortified town—Fort Pankyaw, ~70 km southwest of Shwegyin, and ~30 km northeast of Pegu. He also ordered all settlements on the invasion route—including Sittaung, fief of his father-in-law senior minister Zeik-Bye—[note 11] evacuated, and burned down.[37] He also called up reinforcement troops from the delta, and the Martaban province to Pankyaw.[24][26]

The scorched earth policy proved effective from the start. Advancing Ava forces found nothing but scorched towns. Even this early in the campaign, feeding the large number of troops was already a problem for the Ava command. Even as Ava forces took up their positions outside Pankyaw over five days in late April,[note 12] the troops were already resorting to foraging around the nearby burned out settlements.[37]

Battle of Pankyaw

[edit]

The battle began in early May. Ava forces repeatedly the outer defenses from various points but could not make any significant progress. The Ava advance essentially ground to a halt when Dein Mani-Yut and his delta regiments arrived, bringing the total Hanthawaddy strength to just over 10,000 men.[39] The situation decidedly turned for worse when the rainy season arrived in late May. Feeding their troops quickly became the top problem for the Ava command as monsoon rains and Hanthawaddy ambushes of Ava supply lines reduced supplies to a trickle.[39][40] Starving Ava troops were forced to forage farther and farther, and became victims of Hanthawaddy ambushes.[39]

Despite the worsening situation, Minkhaung stubbornly held out for nearly three months. But the situation grew so dire at the height of the rainy season that the king finally agreed to withdraw. However, because the Ava command feared Hanthawaddy ambushes, Minkhaung sent a messager to Razadarit, asking for terms for a safe passage withdrawal.

Though initially incredulous at the request, Razadarit decided to use this opportunity to end the war.


In April 1408, Minkhaung himself led two armies (26,000 men, 2200 horses, 100 elephants), and invaded the southern country.[29] What ensued was a complete disaster. Predictably, Ava forces got bogged down in the swamps of Lower Burma. Three months into the invasion, Ava's troops were running out of supplies due to bad weather as well as Hanthawaddy ambushes on supply lines.[29] For his part, Razadarit could not match Ava's manpower, and ordered two attempts on Minkhaung's life. The first attempt by Hanthawaddy special forces to ambush Minkhaung's small contingent was broken up on the warning by Theiddat who was with the Peguan forces. It turned out that Theiddat could not betray his elder brother. Razadarit had Theiddat executed for the warning.[41] The second attempt nearly succeeded. Razadarit sent a team of commandos led by his top general Lagun Ein to infiltrate the enemy camp. Lagun Ein got inside Minkhaung's tent but refused to kill a sleeping Minkhaung.[41]

At any rate, Ava forces retreated c. August 1408. Razadarit came out and attacked the retreating troops. Ava forces were routed, and Minkhaung's queen Mi-Nauk was captured. Razadarit now had both the mother and the daughter in his harem.[42] Razadarit attempted to pick off Prome by launching an attack on the city on 22 November 1408 but the attack faltered.[43]

Second invasion (1409–1410)

[edit]

Minkhaung was forced to regroup. In December 1409, he again invaded with two armies (14,000 men, 1400 horses, 100 elephants). His armies again could not break through. Five months into the invasion c. May 1410, Razadarit counterattacked. Near Tharrawaddy, Razadarit and Minkhaung faced in battle over elephants, and the Hanthawaddy king drove back Minkhaung. The remaining Ava army was routed; several infantry, cavalry and elephants were captured.[44]

Historiography

[edit]

Prelude to war

[edit]

The main Burmese chronicles say that Minye Kyawswa conquered Arakan in 765 ME (1403/04)[45][46][47] but the Arakanese chronicle Rakhine Razawin Thit gives the exact date Monday, 5th waning of Nadaw 768 ME, which translates to Monday, 29 November 1406.[12] Thus 765 ME appears to be a copying error of 768 ME as the Burmese numeral ၈ (8) can be miscopied as ၅ (5) and vice versa.[note 13]

Event
Ava conquest of Arakan no explicit dates mentioned[note 14] 1403/04[note 15] 1403/04[note 16] 1403/04[note 17] 29 November 1406[note 4]
Theiddat's defection and
Lapse of the Treaty of Kawliya 		c. mid 1407[note 18] c. mid 1407[note 19] no date mentioned [after 1406/07 implied][note 20] not mentioned

Phase 1 (1408–1410)

[edit]
Event
Hanthawaddy invasion of Arakan March 1408[note 21] by March 1408[note 22] March 1408[note 8] no date mentioned[note 23] late 1407 or early 1408[note 24]
1st Ava invasion of Hanthawaddy [1408 implied][note 25] April–August 1408[note 26] April–August 1408[note 27] April–August 1407 [sic][note 28] not mentioned
2nd Ava invasion of Hanthawaddy ~5 months in 1409–1410[note 29] by October 1409–March 1410[note 30] by October 1409–March 1410[note 31] by October 1409–March 1410[note 32]

Phase 2 (1410–1415)

[edit]

All the main chronicles largely agree on the order of the events but with a few notable exceptions. First, the Razadarit Ayedawbon includes two invasions by Minye Kyawswa whereas the other three chronicles list three invasions by the crown prince. Secondly, the Razadarit places the 3rd Maw/Chinese invasion after Minye Kyawswa's final invasion while the main chronicles place the Chinese invasion during Minye Kyawswa's last invasion.

The most notable difference is the year in which Minye Kyawswa died. The Razadarit says Minye Kyawswa died in Tagu 775 ME (March 1414),[note 33] while the Maha Yazawin places the crown prince's death in Tagu 778 ME (March 1417),[note 34] which may a result of a copying error of 775 ME.[note 13] The Yazawin Thit changes the date to Tagu 776 ME (March 1415)[note 35] but the Hmannan Yazawin keeps Tagu 778 ME (March 1417).[note 36]

In general, many of the Maha Yazawin's dates are inconsistent with the chronicle's narrative.[note 38] The Yazawin Thit largely follows the Maha Yazawin's narrative but updates with internally consistent dates. Indeed, its date for the battle of Dala (Wednesday, 4th waxing of Tagu 776 ME) does fall on a Wednesday (13 March 1415).[note 35] The Hmannan Yazawin uses the Yazawin Thit's dates from 772 ME (1410/11) to 776 ME (1414/15) except at the end when it suddenly switches to Tagu 778 ME (March 1417) for the Battle of Dala and Minye Kyawswa's death.[note 36]

Event
3rd Ava invasion of Hanthawaddy late 1410[63] [late 1410 implied][note 39] late 1410[note 40] late 1410[note 41] not mentioned
Battle of Arakan by early 1411–?[note 42] by early 1411–1410/11 [sic][note 37] by early 1411–c. April 1412[note 43] by early 1411–early 1412[note 44] 1411/12[note 45]
1st Maw/Chinese invasion of Ava
(Siege of Hsenwi) 		6+ months in 1411/12[note 46] c. April 1411–October 1411[note 47] c. April 1412–?[note 48] c. April 1412–October 1412[note 49] not mentioned
1st Hanthawaddy invasion of Ava
(Siege of Prome)
  • 4+ months in 1411/12 (Siege of Prome)[note 50]
  • another 4 months in 1411/12 (Battle of Talezi)[note 51]
 c. April 1411–c. August 1411[note 52] c. April 1412–August 1412[note 53] c. April 1412–August 1412[note 54]
Siamese incursion into Martaban Province 1411/12[note 55] c. May 1411[note 56] c. May 1412[note 57] c. May 1412[note 58]
4th Ava invasion of Hanthawaddy not mentioned late 1411–c. October 1412[note 59] late 1412–c. October 1413[note 60] late 1412–c. October 1413[note 61]
2nd Maw/Chinese invasion of Ava
(Battle of Myedu) 		not mentioned 1412/13[note 62] late 1413[note 63] late 1413[note 64]
Ava garrison in Arakan not mentioned not mentioned not mentioned not mentioned 1413/14[note 45]
5th Ava invasion of Hanthawaddy late 1413–after March 1414[note 65] by October 1415–May 1417[note 66] by October 1414–May 1415[note 67] by Octobr 1414–May 1417[note 68] not mentioned
 · Battle of Dala Saturday, 24 March 1414[note 33] Sunday, 21 March 1417[note 34] Wednesday, 13 March 1415[note 35] Sunday, 21 March 1417[note 36]
3rd Maw/Chinese invasion of Ava after March 1414[note 69] late 1415–January 1416[note 70] late 1414–January 1415[note 71] late 1414–January 1415[note 72]

Phase 3 (1416–1418)

[edit]

After having placed the Battle of Dala in 1417, the Hmannan Yazawin places the next campaign in 1416.[note 73]

Event
2nd Hanthawaddy invasion of Ava
(Battle of Toungoo) 		not mentioned late 1417[note 74] late 1416[note 75] late 1416[note 73] not mentioned
Ava driven out of Arakan
(Battle of Ngakhwethindaung) 		not mentioned not mentioned not mentioned not mentioned 1416/17[note 45]
6th Ava invasion of Hanthawaddy specific date not mentioned but after March 1414[note 76] late 1418–late 1419[note 77] late 1417–late 1418[note 78] late 1417–late 1418[note 79] not mentioned

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ from 1415
  2. ^ to 1414
  3. ^ a b c d e f [x] infantry; [y] cavalry; [z] elephants
  1. ^ a b Unless otherwise stated, the military mobilization figures in this article are reduced by an order of magnitude from those reported in the royal chronicles, per G.E. Harvey's analysis in his History of Burma (1925) in the section Numerical Note (pp. 333–335).
  2. ^ According to the Razadarit Ayedawbon, the Pegu court learned about Ava's plans to attack Arakan and Pegu when its border patrols intercepted an Ava envoy en route to Chiang Mai who had inadvertently veered into Hanthawaddy territory.[9] Razadarit's spies in Ava soon after reported that Ava forces had in fact already left for Arakan.[11] Since Ava forces conquered the Arakanese capital of Launggyet on Monday, 5th waning of Nadaw 768 ME (Monday, 29 November 1406) per the Rakhine Razawin Thit chronicle,[12] the Ava invasion must have begun after or towards the end of the rainy season, probably after the end of the Buddhist Lent on 26 September 1406.
  3. ^ While the Razadarit Ayedawbon says the Pegu court received the intelligence by intercepting Ava's envoys to Chiang Mai before Ava's Arakan campaign,[9] [in 1406], the main chronicles all say Ava's mission to Chiang Mai took place after the southern kingdom invaded Arakan [in 1408], in an attempt to recruit Lan Na into jointly attacking Pegu; they do not mention Arakan at all.[13][14][15]
  4. ^ a b Monday, 5th waning of Nadaw 768 ME (Monday, 29 November 1406)[12]
  5. ^ The chronicle Razadarit Ayedawbon says Razadarit took in Min Saw Mon[11] but the Arakanese Rakhine Razawin Thit chronicle says it was Khayi, the brother of Min Saw Mon, that fled to Hanthawaddy; Min Saw Mon fled to Bengal.[16]
  6. ^ Tabodwe 769 ME (28 December 1407 – 25 January 1408)
  7. ^ The Yazawin Thit quoting the Razadarit Ayedawbon says Razadarit prayed at the Myathitin Pagoda.[14] Presumably, it was the Shwemawdaw Pagoda in Pegu.
  8. ^ a b Citing the Razadarit Ayedawbon, the Yazawin Thit says Razadarit decided to attack Arakan in Tabodwe 769 ME (28 December 1407–25 January 1408), and sent in his invasion forces in [Late] Tagu 769 ME (25 February 1408–24 March 1408).[14]
  9. ^ The Rakhine Razawin Thit chronicle says a garrison commanded by Smin Maw-Khwin stayed behind.[22] But the Razadarit Ayedawbon says both commanders, Smin Paik-Nye and Smin Maw-Khwin, were called back.[23] The main chronicles say Smin Maw-Khwin was one of the commanders at the Pegu front in April/May 1408.[24][25][26]
  10. ^ Kason 1408 (29 March 1408–23 April 1408)
  11. ^ Before his town was being burned down, Zeik-Bye had no choice but to "lend" seven viss (11.43 kg) of gold to the royal treasury.[37]
  12. ^ According to the Razadarit, the first Ava forces arrived on one of the neap tide days the month (ရေသေရက်), four or five days before the tides began rising again.[38] Since neap tide days last for one week after the full moon day or the new moon day, the first Ava forces likely reached Pankyaw during the week following the new moon of Kason 770 ME (23 April 1408).
  13. ^ a b The Burmese numerals ၅ (5) and ၈ (8) are quite similar when written in longhand, and can easily be miscopied.
  14. ^ Pan Hla's edition of the Razadarit does not provide any specific dates for the events. It covers Theiddat's defection[48] before Ava's conquest of Arakan.[11]
  15. ^ 765 ME (30 March 1403 – 28 March 1404)[45]
  16. ^ 765 ME (30 March 1403 – 28 March 1404)[46]
  17. ^ 765 ME (30 March 1403 – 28 March 1404)[47]
  18. ^ early 769 ME[49]
  19. ^ early 769 ME[50]
  20. ^ Unlike other chronicles, the Hmannan does not explicitly state any dates of the events.[18] Its previous explicitly stated date right before this section was 768 ME (1406/07).[51]
  21. ^ Different versions of the Razadarit Ayedawbon provide different information:
    • An 18th century copy of the Razadarit, cited in the Yazawin Thit chronicle (1798), says Razadarit decided to attack Arakan in Tabodwe 769 ME (28 December 1407–25 January 1408), and sent in his invasion forces in [Late] Tagu 769 ME (25 February 1408–24 March 1408).[14]
    • Pan Hla's version of the Razadarit gives no dates or years for Hanthawaddy's first Arakan campaign.[52] However, Pan Hla notes a few pages later in a footnote that the chronicle gives 769 ME (1407/08) for Hanthawaddy's second Arakan campaign,[53] which according to other chronicles (including the Pak Lat)[53] took place in 772 ME (1410/11).
  22. ^ The Maha Yazawin only says Hanthawaddy forces invaded Arakan in 769 ME (30 March 1407–28 March 1408),[54] which provoked Minkhaung to launch an invasion in Kason 770 ME (29 March 1408–23 April 1408).[30]
  23. ^ The Hmannan includes no explicit dates about the Arakan campaign itself,[55] except that Minkhaung invaded Hanthwaddy soon after in Kason 769 ME [sic] (6 April–5 May 1407).[26]
  24. ^ 769 ME (30 March 1407 – 28 March 1408), a year after Minye Kyawswa's conquest [in November 1406]. Ava retained a toehold in Arakan at the Ngakhwethindaung fort in 770 ME (1408/09).[22]
  25. ^ right after the Arakan campaign[52]
  26. ^ Invasion begins in Kason 770 ME (29 March 1408–23 April 1408).[30] Negotiations began about three months later but eventually broke down; Ava forces were driven back soon after.[56]
  27. ^ The Yazawin Thit largely follows the Maha Yazawin's narrative but does not explicitly state Kason 770 ME (29 March 1408–23 April 1408). Instead it says Minkhaung launched the invasion right after learning about the fall of Arakan.[57]
  28. ^ The Hmannan follows the Maha Yazawin's narrative but it gives 769 ME as the year (instead of 770 ME). This means the invasion began in Kason 769 ME (6 April 1407–5 May 1407),[26] the attempts to negotiate began about three months into the campaign (July/August 1408),[26] and Ava forces were driven back soon after.[58]
  29. ^ Campaign lasted about five months during the dry season of 771 ME, and ended before the arrival of the rainy season.[59] Unlike the main chronicles, the Razadarit does not explicitly say that the campaign ended in 771 ME.
  30. ^ Campaign lasted about five months during the dry season of 771 ME, and ended in 771 ME.[60]
  31. ^ Campaign lasted about five months during the dry season of 771 ME, and ended in 771 ME.[61]
  32. ^ Campaign lasted about five months during the dry season of 771 ME, and ended in 771 ME.[44]
  33. ^ a b Inconsistent date: According to Pan Hla,
    • The Binnya Dala version of the Razadarit gives Wednesday, 4th waxing of [Late] Tagu 775 ME.[92] which translates to Saturday, 24 March 1414.
    • The Pak Lat gives "Sunday, 4th waxing of Tagu" without the year.[99] Pan Hla continues that because Pak Lat says Minye Kyawswa dies three years after his first campaign in 772 ME, the year of the death should be 775 ME.[92] Sunday, 4th waxing of [Late] Tagu 775 ME translates to Saturday, 24 March 1414.
  34. ^ a b Inconsistent date: Wednesday, 4th waxing of [Late] Tagu 778 ME (Sunday, 21 March 1417)[62]
  35. ^ a b c Consistent date: Wednesday, 4th waxing of [Late] Tagu 776 ME (Wednesday, 13 March 1415)[100]
  36. ^ a b c Inconsistent date: Wednesday, 4th waxing of [Late] Tagu 778 ME (Sunday, 21 March 1417)[101]
  37. ^ a b The Maha Yazawin is inconsistent:
    • In response to Ava's invasion of Arakan, Hanthawaddy sent reinforcements to Arakan in early 773 ME (c. April 1411). After over three months of fighting at Sandoway, Ava forces withdrew.[69]
    • Hanthawaddy forces then went on to retake Launggyet in 772 ME [sic] (1410/11).[70]
  38. ^ The Maha Yazawin's narrative has the following inconsistencies:
    • The Arakan campaign started in late 772 ME (early 1411), fought into early 773 ME (c. April 1412 onwards), and ended in 772 ME [sic] (1410/11).[note 37]
    • Its dates suggest a three-year lull in fighting between 774 ME and 777 ME even though its own narrative shows continuous fighting.
    • Its dates for the fifth invasion indicate two full dry season campaigns in 777 ME (1415–1416) and 778 ME (1416–1417) while its narrative covers a single dry season campaign.
    • It says the Battle of Dala took place on Wednesday, 4th waxing of Tagu 778 ME but the date actually translates to Sunday, 21 March 1417.[62]
  39. ^ The Maha Yazawin does not provide a specific date for this campaign. But the previous campaign took place in 771 ME[64] and the subsequent campaign in 773 ME.[65]
  40. ^ Dry season of 772 ME[66]
  41. ^ Dry season of 772 ME[67]
  42. ^ Began after Minye Kyawswa's withdrawal from the delta;[68] no specific end date given.
  43. ^ Ava forces invaded Arakan in late 772 ME (early 1411), and Hanthawaddy reinforcements came in 773 ME (c. April/May 1411).[66] Battle of Sandoway in 773 ME (mid 1411–late 1411); Battle of Launggyet in early 774 ME (c. April/May 1412).[71]
  44. ^ Ava forces conquered Launggyet and Sandoway in late 772 ME (early 1411) before Hanthawaddy reinforcements arrived in early 773 ME.[72] Battle of Sandoway in 773 ME (mid 1411–late 1411); Battle of Launggyet in late 773 ME (early 1412).[73]
  45. ^ a b c Ava established the Ngakhwethindaung fort in Arakan in 770 ME (1408/09). Three years later, [773 ME (1411/12)] Hanthawaddy forces drove out the Ava garrison. Ava reestablished the fort in 775 ME (1413/14). Arakanese forces drove out Ava forces for good in 778 ME (1416/17).[22]
  46. ^ 6+ months in 773 ME (30 March 1411–28 March 1412)[74]
  47. ^ Hsenwi forces invaded Ava in early 773 ME (c. April 1411).[70] Minye Kyawswa laid siege to Hsenwi for about five months before defeating Chinese relief forces.[75]
  48. ^ Unlike other chronicles, the Yazawin Thit does not say how long the Hsenwi campaign lasted; it only says the campaign took place in 774 ME (29 March 1412–29 March 1413)[76]
  49. ^ Hsenwi campaign began in early 774 ME (c. April 1411), laid siege to Hsenwi for about five months before defeating Chinese relief forces.[77]
  50. ^ 4+ months in 773 ME (30 March 1411–28 March 1412)[74]
  51. ^ According to the Razadarit Ayedawbon the Ava counterattack was limited to Talezi for four months, not into Hanthawaddy territory.[78]
  52. ^ The Maha Yazawin does not provide a specific date for the campaign except that Razadarit invaded when he heard Minye Kyawswa had left for Hsenwi.[75]
  53. ^ Siege of Prome began in 774 ME and lasted about 4 months.[79]
  54. ^ Siege of Prome began in 774 ME and lasted about 4 months.[80]
  55. ^ About one and a half months into the Prome campaign, Razadarit went to Martaban to defend Martaban in 773 ME (30 March 1411–28 March 1412)[81]
  56. ^ Siamese forces attacked Ye, one month into the Prome campaign.[82]
  57. ^ Siamese forces attacked Moulmein and Martaban, one month into the Prome campaign.[76]
  58. ^ Siamese forces attacked Ye, one month into the Prome campaign.[83]
  59. ^ The campaign began after the siege of Prome was lifted, and ended after the next rainy season [774 ME (c. Oct 1412)].[84]
  60. ^ The campaign began after Minye Kyawswa had returned from Hsenwi[85] and lasted into Nayon [775 ME] (30 April 1413–28 May 1413)[86] before withdrawing after the rainy season of 775 ME.[87]
  61. ^ The campaign began after Minye Kyawswa had returned from Hsenwi[88] and lasted into Nayon [775 ME] (30 April 1413–28 May 1413)[89] before withdrawing after the rainy season.[90]
  62. ^ 774 ME (29 March 1412–29 March 1413)[82]
  63. ^ after rainy season of 775 ME (c. November 1413)[91]
  64. ^ after rainy season of 775 ME (c. November 1413)[90]
  65. ^ The campaign was fought in 775 ME (1413/14), and ended soon after Minye Kyawswa's death in March 1414.[92]
  66. ^ The Maha Yazawin says the campaign had begun by Tazaungmon 777 ME (2–31 October 1415),[93] and ended after Minye Kyawswa's death on 4th waxing of Late Tagu 778 ME (1417).[94]
  67. ^ The invasion had begun by Tazaungmon 776 ME (13 October 1413–11 November 1413),[95] and ended after Minkhaung withdrew in early 777 ME (April/May 1415).[96]
  68. ^ The invasion had begun by Tazaungmon 776 ME (13 October 1413–11 November 1413),[97] and ended after Minkhaung withdrew in early 779 ME (April/May 1417).[98]
  69. ^ The Razadarit Ayedawbon places the Chinese invasion of Ava after Minye Kyawswa's death.[102]
  70. ^ The Chinese laid siege to Ava between Tazaungmon 777 ME (2 October 1415–31 October 1415) and Tabodwe 776 ME (30 December 1415–27 January 1416) for a month.[103]
  71. ^ The Chinese invasion took place between Tazaungmon 776 ME (13 October 1414–11 November 1414) and Tabodwe 776 ME (10 January 1415–7 February 1415).[104]
  72. ^ The Chinese invasion took place between Tazaungmon 776 ME (13 October 1414–11 November 1414) and Tabodwe 777 ME (10 January 1415–7 February 1415).[105]
  73. ^ a b Hanthawaddy forces attacked Toungoo in 778 ME (1416/17).[108]
  74. ^ Hanthawaddy forces attacked Toungoo in 779 ME (1417/18).[106]
  75. ^ Hanthawaddy forces attacked Toungoo in 778 ME (1416/17).[107]
  76. ^ The Razadarit Ayedawbon places the invasion in which Binnya Set of Dagon was captured, right after Minye Kyawswa's death in 1414.[109]
  77. ^ Invasion began in 780 ME (1418/19), and ended sometime after the next rainy season.[110]
  78. ^ Invasion began in 779 ME (1417/18), and ended after the next rainy season.[111]
  79. ^ Invasion began in 779 ME (1417/18), and ended after the next rainy season.[112]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Harvey 1925: 82–85
  2. ^ Htin Aung 1967: 88
  3. ^ Aung-Thwin 2017: 254–255
  4. ^ Fernquest Spring 2006: 10–11
  5. ^ Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 470
  6. ^ Harvey 1925: 90
  7. ^ a b Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 224–225
  8. ^ a b Fernquest Autumn 2006: 51
  9. ^ a b c d Pan Hla 2005: 237–239
  10. ^ Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 467
  11. ^ a b c d e f Pan Hla 2005: 239
  12. ^ a b c d Sandamala Linkara Vol. 2 1999: 9
  13. ^ a b Maha Yazawin Vol. 1 2006: 332–333
  14. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 228
  15. ^ Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 475–476
  16. ^ Sandamala Linkara 1997–1999, Vol. 2, p. 9.
  17. ^ Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 227
  18. ^ a b c Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 473–474
  19. ^ a b Aung-Thwin 2017: 75
  20. ^ a b c Harvey 1925: 91
  21. ^ a b c d e f g Pan Hla 2005: 240
  22. ^ a b c d Sandamala Linkara Vol. 2 1999: 10
  23. ^ a b c d Pan Hla 2005: 241
  24. ^ a b c d Maha Yazawin Vol. 1 2006: 334–335
  25. ^ a b c d e Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 229
  26. ^ a b c d e f Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 477
  27. ^ Aung-Thwin 2017: 78
  28. ^ Phayre 1967: 72
  29. ^ a b c d Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 476–477
  30. ^ a b c Maha Yazawin Vol. 1 2006: 334
  31. ^ Pan Hla 2005: 242–243
  32. ^ Pan Hla 2005: 248
  33. ^ Pan Hla 2005: 263
  34. ^ a b Pan Hla 2005: 243
  35. ^ Pan Hla 2005: 245
  36. ^ Pan Hla 2005: 244
  37. ^ a b c Pan Hla 2005: 246
  38. ^ Pan Hla 2005: 247
  39. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference nph-248-249 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  40. ^ Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 230
  41. ^ a b Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 481–483
  42. ^ Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 484–485
  43. ^ (Razadarit Ayedawbon 2005: 278): 5th waxing of Nadaw 770 ME = 22 November 1408
  44. ^ a b Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 2–3
  45. ^ a b Maha Yazawin Vol. 1 2006: 309
  46. ^ a b Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 224
  47. ^ a b Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 443
  48. ^ Pan Hla 2005: 236–237
  49. ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 1 2006: 332
  50. ^ Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 227–228
  51. ^ Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 471
  52. ^ a b Pan Hla 2005: 240–241
  53. ^ a b Pan Hla 2005: 276, footnote 1
  54. ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 1 2006: 330, 332
  55. ^ Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 474
  56. ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 1 2006: 339–340
  57. ^ Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 229, 230, 233
  58. ^ Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 484
  59. ^ Pan Hla 2005: 268, 271
  60. ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 26–27
  61. ^ Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 235–236
  62. ^ a b Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 49
  63. ^ Pan Hla 2005: 271
  64. ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 27
  65. ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 29
  66. ^ a b Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 237
  67. ^ Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 4
  68. ^ Pan Hla 2005: 276
  69. ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 29–30
  70. ^ a b Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 31
  71. ^ Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 238
  72. ^ Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 6
  73. ^ Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 6–8
  74. ^ a b Pan Hla 2005: 276–278
  75. ^ a b Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 32
  76. ^ a b Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 239
  77. ^ Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 8–9
  78. ^ Pan Hla 2005: 278–281
  79. ^ Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 241
  80. ^ Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 8–12
  81. ^ Pan Hla 2005: 277
  82. ^ a b Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 32–33
  83. ^ Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 9
  84. ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 33
  85. ^ Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 240
  86. ^ Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 245
  87. ^ Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 246
  88. ^ Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 10
  89. ^ Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 16
  90. ^ a b Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 20
  91. ^ Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 246–247
  92. ^ a b c Pan Hla 2005: 317 footnote 1
  93. ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 34, 39
  94. ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 52
  95. ^ Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 247, 253
  96. ^ Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 262–263
  97. ^ Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 21, 31
  98. ^ Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 48–50
  99. ^ Pan Hla 2005: 307
  100. ^ Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 260
  101. ^ Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 48
  102. ^ Pan Hla 2005: 330, footnotes 1 and 2
  103. ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 34–36, 38–39
  104. ^ Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 252–253
  105. ^ Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 30–31
  106. ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 54
  107. ^ Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 263
  108. ^ Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 50
  109. ^ Pan Hla 2005: 323 footnote 1, 324 footnote 2
  110. ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 54–55
  111. ^ Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 264
  112. ^ Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 51

Bibliography

[edit]
  • Aung-Thwin, Michael A. (2017). Myanmar in the Fifteenth Century. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-6783-6.
  • Aye Chan (2006). "Burma: Shan Domination in the Ava Period (c. AD 1310–1555)" (PDF). Journal of the Siam Society. 94.
  • Fernquest, Jon (Spring 2006). "Rajadhirat's Mask of Command: Military Leadership in Burma (c. 1384–1421)" (PDF). SOAS Bulletin of Burma Research. 4 (1). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-03-22. Retrieved 2024-01-04.
  • Fernquest, Jon (Autumn 2006). "Crucible of War: Burma and the Ming in the Tai Frontier Zone (1382–1454)" (PDF). SOAS Bulletin of Burma Research. 4 (2). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-08-10. Retrieved 2024-01-04.
  • Harvey, G. E. (1925). History of Burma: From the Earliest Times to 10 March 1824. London: Frank Cass & Co. Ltd.
  • Hlaing, Mi Mi (2018). "States of Hostilities in the First Ava Period". Mandalay University Research Journal. 9 (1). University of Mandalay.
  • Htin Aung, Maung (1967). A History of Burma. New York and London: Cambridge University Press.
  • Kala, U (2006) [1724]. Maha Yazawin (in Burmese). Vol. 1–3 (4th printing ed.). Yangon: Ya-Pyei Publishing.
  • Maha Sithu (2012) [1798]. Myint Swe; Kyaw Win; Thein Hlaing (eds.). Yazawin Thit (in Burmese). Vol. 1–3 (2nd printing ed.). Yangon: Ya-Pyei Publishing.
  • Pan Hla, Nai (2005) [1968]. Razadarit Ayedawbon (in Burmese) (8th printing ed.). Yangon: Armanthit Sarpay.
  • Phayre, Arthur P. (1967) [1883]. History of Burma. London: Susil Gupta.
  • Royal Historical Commission of Burma (2003) [1832]. Hmannan Yazawin (in Burmese). Vol. 1–3. Yangon: Ministry of Information, Myanmar.
  • Sandamala Linkara, Ashin (1997–1999) [1931]. Rakhine Razawin Thit (in Burmese). Vol. 1–2. Yangon: Tetlan Sarpay.
  • Than Tun (December 1959). "History of Burma: A.D. 1300–1400". Journal of Burma Research Society. XLII (II).


Category:Wars involving Myanmar Category:1400s conflicts Category:1410s conflicts Category:1400s in Asia Category:1410s in Asia

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